Effectiveness of green and cool roofs in mitigating urban heat island effects during a heatwave event in the city of Melbourne in southeast Australia

Akbari, 2012, The long-term effect of increasing the albedo of urban areas, Environ. Res. Lett., 7, 10.1088/1748-9326/7/2/024004 Akbari, 2003, Analyzing the land cover of an urban environment using high-resolution orthophotos, Landsc. Urban Plann., 63, 1, 10.1016/S0169-2046(02)00165-2 Argueso, 2014, Temperature response to future urbanization and climate change, Clim. Dynam., 42, 2183, 10.1007/s00382-013-1789-6 Blazejczyk, 2012, Comparison of UTCI to selected thermal indices, Int. J. Biometeorol., 56, 515, 10.1007/s00484-011-0453-2 Bröde, 2012, Deriving the operational procedure for the universal thermal climate index (UTCI), Int. J. Biometeorol., 56, 481, 10.1007/s00484-011-0454-1 Bröde, 2012, Predicting urban outdoor thermal comfort by the Universal Thermal Climate Index UTCI—a case study in Southern Brazil, Int. J. Biometeorol., 56, 471, 10.1007/s00484-011-0452-3 Carson, 2013, Hydrological performance of extensive green roofs in New York City: observations and multi-year modeling of three full-scale systems, Environ. Res. Lett., 8, 10.1088/1748-9326/8/2/024036 Chen, 2001, Coupling an advanced land surface–hydrology model with the penn state–NCAR MM5 modeling system. Part II: preliminary model validation, Mon. Weather Rev., 129, 587, 10.1175/1520-0493(2001)129<0587:CAALSH>2.0.CO;2 Chen, 2011, The integrated WRF/urban modelling system: development, evaluation, and applications to urban environmental problems, Int. J. Climatol., 1, 273, 10.1002/joc.2158 Climate Institute, 2013 Coutts, 2007, Impact of increasing urban density on local climate: spatial and temporal variations in the surface energy balance in Melbourne, Australia, J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 46, 477, 10.1175/JAM2462.1 Cowan, 2014, More frequent, longer, and hotter heat waves for Australia in the twenty-first century, J. Clim., 27, 5851, 10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00092.1 Dee, 2011, The ERA-Interim reanalysis: configuration and performance of the data assimilation system Quarterly, J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 137, 656 553 Dudhia, 2014, A history of mesoscale model development, Asia-Pacific J. Atmos. Sci., 50, 121, 10.1007/s13143-014-0031-8 Engel, 2013, The meteorology of black Saturday, Quarter. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 139, 585, 10.1002/qj.1986 Evans, 2012, Evaluating the performance of a WRF physics ensemble over South-East Australia, Clim. Dynam., 39, 1241, 10.1007/s00382-011-1244-5 Field, 2014, Climate change 2014: impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability, 76 Georgescu, 2015, Challenges associated with adaptation to future urban expansion, J. Clim., 28, 2544, 10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00290.1 Georgescu, 2014, Urban adaptation can roll back warming of emerging megapolitan regions, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. Unit. States Am., 111, 2909, 10.1073/pnas.1322280111 Grell, 2002, A generalized approach to parameterizing convection combining ensemble and data assimilation techniques, Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, 10.1029/2002GL015311 Guan, 2014, Response of office building electricity consumption to urban weather in Adelaide, South Australia Urban Climate, 1, 42, 10.1016/j.uclim.2014.09.005 Iacono, 2008, Radiative forcing by long-lived greenhouse gases: calculations with the AER radiative transfer models, J. Geophys. Res.: Atmos., 113, D13, 10.1029/2008JD009944 Imran, 2017, An evaluation of the performance of a WRF multi-physics ensemble for heatwave events over the city of Melbourne in southeast Australia, Clim. Dynam., 50, 2553, 10.1007/s00382-017-3758-y Irvine, 2011, Climatic effects of surface albedo geoengineering, J. Geophys. Res.: Atmos., 116, D24, 10.1029/2011JD016281 Jackson, 2010, Parameterization of urban characteristics for global climate modeling, Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr., 100, 848, 10.1080/00045608.2010.497328 Janjić, 1994, The step-mountain eta coordinate model: further developments of the convection, viscous sublayer, and turbulence closure schemes, Mon. Weather Rev., 122, 927, 10.1175/1520-0493(1994)122<0927:TSMECM>2.0.CO;2 Johansson, 2006, Influence of urban geometry on outdoor thermal comfort in a hot dry climate: a study in Fez, Morocco Build. Environ., 41, 1326, 10.1016/j.buildenv.2005.05.022 Kala, 2015, Sensitivity of WRF to driving data and physics options on a seasonal time-scale for the southwest of Western Australia, Clim. Dynam., 44, 633, 10.1007/s00382-014-2160-2 Kala, 2015, Influence of antecedent soil moisture conditions on the synoptic meteorology of the Black Saturday bushfire event in southeast Australia, Quarter. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 141, 3118, 10.1002/qj.2596 Kusaka, 2004, Thermal effects of urban canyon structure on the nocturnal heat island: numerical experiment using a mesoscale model coupled with an urban canopy, Model J. Appl. Meteorol., 43, 1899, 10.1175/JAM2169.1 Kusaka, 2001, A simple single-layer urban canopy model for atmospheric models: comparison with multi-layer and slab models, Boundary-Layer Meteorol., 101, 329, 10.1023/A:1019207923078 Li, 2014, Quality and sensitivity of high-resolution numerical simulation of urban heat islands, Environ. Res. Lett., 9, 10.1088/1748-9326/9/5/055001 Li, 2014, The effectiveness of cool and green roofs as urban heat island mitigation strategies, Environ. Res. Lett., 9, 10.1088/1748-9326/9/5/055002 Li, 2013, Development and evaluation of a mosaic approach in the WRF-Noah Framework, J. Geophys. Res.: Atmos., 118 Liu, 2006, Verification of a mesoscale data-assimilation and forecasting system for the Oklahoma city area during the joint urban 2003 field project, J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol., 45, 912, 10.1175/JAM2383.1 Matzarakis, 2010, Modelling radiation fluxes in simple and complex environments: basics of the RayMan model, Int. J. Biometeorol., 54, 131, 10.1007/s00484-009-0261-0 Miao, 2009, An observational and modeling study of characteristics of urban heat island and boundary layer structures in Beijing, J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol., 48, 484, 10.1175/2008JAMC1909.1 Millstein, 2011, Regional climate consequences of large-scale cool roof and photovoltaic array deployment, Environ. Res. Lett., 6, 10.1088/1748-9326/6/3/034001 Morini, 2017 Morini, 2016, The impact of albedo increase to mitigate the urban heat island in terni (Italy) using the wrf, Model Sustain., 8, 999, 10.3390/su8100999 Nairn, 2013 Nicholls, 2011, Impact of drought on temperature extremes in Melbourne, Australia, Aust. Meteorol. Oceanogr. J., 61, 113, 10.22499/2.6102.003 O'malley, 2014, An investigation into minimizing urban heat island (UHI) effects: a UK perspective, Energy Procedia, 62, 72, 10.1016/j.egypro.2014.12.368 Oleson, 2010, Effects of white roofs on urban temperature in a global climate model, Geophys. Res. Lett., 37, 10.1029/2009GL042194 Perkins-Kirkpatrick, 2016, Natural hazards in Australia: heatwaves, Climatic Change, 1 Rosenfeld, 1998, Cool communities: strategies for heat island mitigation and smog reduction, Energy Build., 28, 51, 10.1016/S0378-7788(97)00063-7 Perkins, 2013, On the measurement of heat waves, J. Clim., 26, 4500, 10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00383.1 Razzaghmanesha, 2017, Thermal performance investigation of a living wall in a dry climate of Australia, Build. Environ., 112, 45, 10.1016/j.buildenv.2016.11.023 Razzaghmanesha, 2016, The role of green roofs in mitigating Urban Heat Island effects in themetropolitan area of Adelaide, South Australia, Urban For. Urban Green., 15, 89, 10.1016/j.ufug.2015.11.013 Sharma, 2016, Green and cool roofs to mitigate urban heat island effects in the Chicago metropolitan area: evaluation with a regional climate model, Environ. Res. Lett., 11, 10.1088/1748-9326/11/6/064004 Sharma, 2014, Sensitivity of WRF model to urban parameterizations, with applications to Chicago metropolitan urban heat island, Environ. Res. Lett., 11 Skamarock, 2005 Skamarock, 2008 Smith, 2011, Green roof mitigation potential for a proxy future climate scenario in Chicago, Illinois, J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol., 50, 507, 10.1175/2010JAMC2337.1 Song, 2015, Interfacing the urban land–atmosphere system through coupled urban canopy and atmospheric models, Boundary-Layer Meteorol., 154, 427, 10.1007/s10546-014-9980-9 Steffen, 2014 Sun, 2014, To irrigate or not to irrigate: analysis of green roof performance via a vertically-resolved hygrothermal model, Build. Environ., 73, 127, 10.1016/j.buildenv.2013.12.004 Sun, 2013, Hydrometeorological determinants of green roof performance via a vertically-resolved model for heat and water transport, Build. Environ., 60, 211, 10.1016/j.buildenv.2012.10.018 Synnefa, 2008, On the use of cool materials as a heat island mitigation, Strat. J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol., 47, 2846, 10.1175/2008JAMC1830.1 Taha, 2008, Episodic performance and sensitivity of the urbanized MM5 (uMM5) to perturbations in surface properties in houston Texas, Boundary-Layer Meteorol., 127, 193, 10.1007/s10546-007-9258-6 Taha, 2008, Meso-urban meteorological and photochemical modeling of heat island mitigation, Atmos. Environ., 42, 8795, 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.06.036 Thompson, 2008, Explicit forecasts of winter precipitation using an improved Bulk microphysics scheme. Part II: implementation of a new snow parameterization, Mon. Weather Rev., 136, 5095, 10.1175/2008MWR2387.1 Touchaei, 2016, Effect of increasing urban albedo on meteorology and air quality of Montreal (Canada) - episodic simulation of heat wave in 2005, Atmos. Environ., 132, 188, 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.02.033 Vatani, 2016, Applicability of Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI) in occupational heat stress assessment: a case study in brick industries, Ind. Health, 54, 14, 10.2486/indhealth.2015-0069 Victorian Auditor General's Report, 2014 Wong, 2003, The effects of rooftop garden on energy consumption of a commercial building in Singapore, Energy Build., 35, 353, 10.1016/S0378-7788(02)00108-1 Yang, 2015, Enhancing hydrologic modelling in the coupled weather Research and forecasting–urban modelling system, Boundary-Layer Meteorol., 155, 87, 10.1007/s10546-014-9991-6