Effect of cannabis use in people with chronic non-cancer pain prescribed opioids: findings from a 4-year prospective cohort study

Chou, 2015, The effectiveness and risks of long-term opioid therapy for chronic pain: a systematic review for a National Institutes of Health Pathways to Prevention Workshop, Ann Intern Med, 162, 276, 10.7326/M14-2559 Krebs, 2018, Effect of opioid vs nonopioid medications on pain-related function in patients with chronic back pain or hip or knee osteoarthritis pain: the space randomized clinical trial, JAMA, 319, 872, 10.1001/jama.2018.0899 Fischer, 2012, Prescription opioid related misuse, harms, diversion and interventions in Canada: a review, Pain Physician, 15, ES191, 10.36076/ppj.2012/15/ES191 Fischer, 2017, Revisiting the ‘paradigm shift’ in opioid use: developments and implications 10 years later, Drug Alcohol Rev, 37, S199, 10.1111/dar.12539 Nugent, 2017, The effects of cannabis among adults with chronic pain and an overview of general harms: a systematic review, Ann Intern Med, 167, 319, 10.7326/M17-0155 Whiting, 2015, Cannabinoids for medical use: a systematic review and meta-analysis, JAMA, 313, 2456, 10.1001/jama.2015.6358 Stockings, 2018, Cannabis and cannabinoids for the treatment of people with chronic non-cancer pain conditions: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled and observational studies, Pain, 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000001293 2017 Walsh, 2013, Cannabis for therapeutic purposes: patient characteristics, access, and reasons for use, Int J Drug Policy, 24, 511, 10.1016/j.drugpo.2013.08.010 Hazekamp, 2013, The prevalence and incidence of medicinal cannabis on prescription in the Netherlands, Eur J Clin Pharmacol, 69, 1575, 10.1007/s00228-013-1503-y Nielsen, 2017, Opioid-sparing effect of cannabinoids: a systematic review and meta-analysis, Neuropsychopharmacology, 42, 1752, 10.1038/npp.2017.51 Campbell, 2015, The Pain and Opioids IN Treatment study: characteristics of a cohort using opioids to manage chronic non-cancer pain, Pain, 156, 231, 10.1097/01.j.pain.0000460303.63948.8e 2017 Haroutounian, 2016, The effect of medicinal cannabis on pain and quality-of-life outcomes in chronic pain: a prospective open-label study, Clin J Pain, 32, 1036, 10.1097/AJP.0000000000000364 Hoggart, 2015, A multicentre, open-label, follow-on study to assess the long-term maintenance of effect, tolerance and safety of THC/CBD oromucosal spray in the management of neuropathic pain, J Neurol, 262, 27, 10.1007/s00415-014-7502-9 Ware, 2015, Cannabis for the management of pain: assessment of safety study (COMPASS), J Pain, 16, 1233, 10.1016/j.jpain.2015.07.014 Campbell, 2014, Cohort protocol paper: the Pain and Opioids In Treatment (POINT) study, BMC Pharmacol Toxicol, 15, 17, 10.1186/2050-6511-15-17 Dworkin, 2005, Core outcome measures for chronic pain clinical trials: IMMPACT recommendations, Pain, 113, 9, 10.1016/j.pain.2004.09.012 Turk, 2003, Core outcome domains for chronic pain clinical trials: IMMPACT recommendations, Pain, 106, 337, 10.1016/j.pain.2003.08.001 Cleeland Nicholas, 2007, The pain self-efficacy questionnaire: taking pain into account, Eur J Pain, 11, 153, 10.1016/j.ejpain.2005.12.008 Nielsen, 2016, A synthesis of oral morphine equivalents (OME) for opioid utilisation studies, Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf, 25, 733, 10.1002/pds.3945 Kroenke, 2001, The PHQ-9: validity of a brief depression severity measure, J Gen Intern Med, 16, 606, 10.1046/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x Spitzer, 2006, A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder: the GAD-7, Arch Intern Med, 166, 1092, 10.1001/archinte.166.10.1092 2001 Degenhardt, 2015, Experience of adjunctive cannabis use for chronic non-cancer pain: findings from the Pain and Opioids IN Treatment (POINT) study, Drug Alcohol Depend, 147, 144, 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.11.031 2017 Troutt, 2015, Medical cannabis in Arizona: patient characteristics, perceptions, and impressions of medical cannabis legalization, J Psychoactive Drugs, 47, 259, 10.1080/02791072.2015.1074766 Swift, 2005, Survey of Australians using cannabis for medical purposes, Harm Reduct J, 2, 18, 10.1186/1477-7517-2-18 Ware, 2003, Cannabis use for chronic non-cancer pain: results of a prospective survey, Pain, 102, 211, 10.1016/s0304-3959(02)00400-1 Wilson, 2018, Cannabis use moderates the relationship between pain and negative affect in adults with opioid use disorder, Addict Behav, 77, 225, 10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.10.012 Corroon, 2017, Cannabis as a substitute for prescription drugs—a cross-sectional study, J Pain Res, 10, 989, 10.2147/JPR.S134330 Reiman, 2017, Cannabis as a substitute for opioid-based pain medication: patient self-report, Cannabis Cannabinoid Res, 2, 160, 10.1089/can.2017.0012 Darke, 1998, Self-report among injecting drug users: a review, Drug Alcohol Depend, 51, 10, 10.1016/S0376-8716(98)00028-3 Lance, 2009 Abuhasira, 2018, Epidemiological characteristics, safety and efficacy of medical cannabis in the elderly, Eur J Intern Med, 49, 44, 10.1016/j.ejim.2018.01.019 Boehnke, 2016, Medical cannabis use is associated with decreased opiate medication use in a retrospective cross-sectional survey of patients with chronic pain, J Pain, 17, 739, 10.1016/j.jpain.2016.03.002 Norberg, 2012, Quantifying cannabis use with the timeline followback approach: a psychometric evaluation, Drug Alcohol Depend, 121, 247, 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.09.007 van der Pol, 2013, Validation of self-reported cannabis dose and potency: an ecological study, Addiction, 108, 1801, 10.1111/add.12226