Economic empowerment of rural and urban women in India: A comparative analysis
Tóm tắt
The status of women is intimately connected with their economic situation depending upon the opportunity for participation in economic activities. The census data, 2011 shows a vast inequality between rural and urban women work participation as urban women associated with economic activities is just about half of the rural women. Available pieces of the literature revealed how the employment status of women makes them empower, but limited research has been conducted on the comparison of women empowerment in the rural-urban area in different dimensions. In this perspective, assuming that women’s economic empowerment is dependent on work participation, the present study attempts to compare the magnitude of women’s economic empowerment in urban India with its rural counterpart, focusing on various dimensions of work participation. This study is entirely based on secondary databases collected from the Census of India, 2011 and Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) 2019-20. Economic Empowerment Index (EEI) of women has been measured with the help of women work participation, literate women work share, educational level-wise women work participation, work share by married women and job profile wise women work share using the widely adopted normalization technique. The result of the study is showing that the rural women are more engaged in the workforce in all the selected dimensions. The overall analysis is reflected in EEI, which proves that rural women are more economically empowered in comparison with their urban counterparts.
Tài liệu tham khảo
Ackah, C., Ahiadeke, C., & Fenny, A. P. (2009). Determinants of Female Labour Force. Poverty Research Group, Economic and Social Research Council
Afridi, F., Dinkelman, T., & Mahajan, K. (2018). Why are fewer married women joining the work force in rural India? A decomposition analysis over two decades. Journal of Population Economics, 31(3), 783–818
Hossain, M., & Jaim, W. M. H. (2011). Empowering women to become farmer entrepreneur. In Paper presented at the IFAD Conference on New Directions for Smallholder Agriculture (Vol. 24, p. 25)
Yusuf, H. (2010). Empowerment of Women and Its Effects In Improving the Socio-economic Condition of Families in West Siau District, Sitaro District. Journal Lasallian, 7(1), 90–94
Sundari, S. (2020). Structural Changes and Quality of Women’s Labour in India. The Indian Journal of Labour Economics, 63(3), 689–717
Dutta, M. (2000). Women’s employment and its effects on Bengali households of Shillong, India. Journal of comparative family studies, 31(2), 217–229
Mammen, K., & Paxson, C. (2000). Women’s work and economic development. Journal of economic perspectives, 14(4), 141–164
Srivastava, N., & Srivastava, R. (2010). Women, work, and employment outcomes in rural India.Economic and political weekly,49–63
Banu, D., Farashuddin, F., Hossain, A., & Akter, S. (2001). Empowering women in rural Bangladesh: Impact of Bangladesh rural advancement committee’s (BRAC’s) programme. Journal of international women’s studies, 2(3), 30–53
Hill, C. (2011). Enabling rural women’s economic empowerment: Institutions, opportunities and participation. In Background paper prepared for the Expert Group Meeting on Enabling Rural Women’s Economic Empowerment: Institutions, Opportunities and Participation, Accra, UN Women in Cooperation with FAO, IFAD, and WFP
Hultberg, L. (2008). Women empowerment in Bangladesh: A study of the village pay phone program
Kabeer, N. (2001). Discussing Women’s Empowerment Theory and Practice
Mason, K. O., & Smith, H. L. (2003). Women’s empowerment and social context: Results from five Asian countries. Gender and Development Group, World Bank, Washington, DC
Khan, H. (2006). NGOs and gender development, the case of AKRSP in district Chitral. Pakistan: NWFP
Anderson, S., & Eswaran, M. (2009). What determines female autonomy? Evidence from Bangladesh. Journal of Development Economics, 90(2), 179–191
Van den Broeck, G., & Maertens, M. (2017). Does Off-Farm Wage Employment Make Women in Rural Senegal Happy? Feminist Economics, 23(4), 250–275
Bardhan, P. K. (1979). Labor supply functions in a poor agrarian economy. The American Economic Review, 69(1), 73–83
Gulati, L. (1975). Female work participation: a study of inter-state differences.Economic and Political Weekly,35–42
Sharma, A., & Saha, S. (2016). Female employment trends in India: A disaggregated analysis.The NEHU Journal, 13 (2)
Boserup, E. (1970). Women’s Role in Economic Development. London: Allen and Unwin
D’ Andrade (1996). In E. E. Macoby (Ed.), ‘Sex Difference in Cultural Institutions’. The Development of Sex Difference Standford: Standford University Press
Ember, M., & Ember, C. R. (1971). The conditions favoring matrilocal versus patrilocal residence. American Anthropologist, 73(3), 571–594
Murdock, G. P. (1949). Social Structure. New Work: Macmillan
Datta, A., & Sinha, S. (1997). Gender disparities in social well-being: an overview. Indian Journal of Gender Studies, 4(1), 51–65
Tacoli, C. and David Satterthwaite (2013). “Editorial: Gender and Urban Change. Environment and Urbanisation, 25(1), 3–8
Bhagat, R. (2017). Migration, gender and right to the city. Economic & Political Weekly, 52(32), 35–40
Anisha, & Singh, March 12, 2018, NDTV. 10% More Rural Women Participate in Workforce than Urban Women in India:NSS Report
Census of India. (2011). Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner. Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India
Periodic Labour Force Survey (2019-20). Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India
Nath, K. (1965). Urban Women Workers: A Preliminary Study. The Economic Weekly. 1405–1412
Sorsa, P., Mares, J., Didier, M., Guimaraes, C., Rabate, M., Tang, G., & Tuske, A. (2015). Determinants of the low female labour force participation in India.
Das, D., & Pathak, M. (2012). The growing rural-urban disparity in India: Some issues. International Journal of Advancements in Research & Technology, 1(5), 1–7
Tripathy, B., & Raha, S. (2019). A Comparative Analysis between Women Work Participation and Literacy Rate in India. Journal of Scientific Computing. 8 (12)
Chandna, R. C., & Sindhu, M. S. (1980). Introduction to Population Geography. New Delhi’: Kalyani Publishers
Dyson, T., & Moore, M. (1983). On kinship structure, female autonomy, and demographic behavior in India.Population and development review,35–60
Dreze, J. (1999). A surprising exception. Himachal’s success in promoting female education. Manushi, 112, 12–17
Baruah, A., & Indervir, S. (2020). Employment of Women in Rural Punjab: Deconstructing Agricultural Growth Policy. Economic and Political Weekly, 55(26), 29–35
Singh, J., & Goyal, K. (2019). Employment status of women in rural punjab: dwindling trends. Economic Affairs, 64(2), 281–290
Chatterjee, E., Desai, S., & Vanneman, R. (2018). “Indian paradox: Rising education, declining women’s employment”. Demographic Research, 38(1), 855–878
Reddy, N. D. (1979). Female Work Participation in India: Facts, Problems, and Policies. Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, 15(2), 197–212
Sarkar, S., Sahoo, S., & Klasen, S. (2019). Employment transitions of women in India: A panel analysis. World Development, 115, 291–309
Mondal, D., & Paul, P. (2021). Associations of power relations, wife-beating attitudes, and controlling behavior of husband with domestic violence against women in India: Insights from the National Family Health Survey–4. Violence against women, 27(14), 2530–2551
Evans, A. (2020). Why are North and South India so different on gender?. https://www.draliceevans.com/post/why-are-southern-north-eastern-indian-states-more-gender-equal. Accessed on 12th March 2022
Imbert, C., & Papp, J. (2015). Labor market effects of social programs: Evidence from India’s employment guarantee. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 7(2), 233–263
Klasen, S., & Pieters, J. (2015). What explains the stagnation of female labor force participation in urban India? The World Bank Economic Review, 29(3), 449–478