Early life stress and trauma: developmental neuroendocrine aspects of prolonged stress system dysregulation
Tóm tắt
Từ khóa
Tài liệu tham khảo
Shonkoff JP, Boyce WT, McEwen BS (2009) Neuroscience, molecular biology, and the childhood roots of health disparities: building a new framework for health promotion and disease prevention. JAMA 301(21):2252–2259
Gluckman PD, Hanson MA, Pinal C (2005) The developmental origins of adult disease. Maternal & Child Nutrition 1(3):130–141
Gilbert R, Widom CS, Browne K, Fergusson D, Webb E, Janson S (2009) Burden and consequences of child maltreatment in high-income countries. Lancet 373(9657):68–81
Green JG, McLaughlin KA, Berglund PA et al (2010) Childhood adversities and adult psychiatric disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication I: associations with first onset of DSM-IV disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 67(2):113–123
Maercker A, Michael T, Fehm L, Becker ES, Margraf J (2004) Age of traumatisation as a predictor of post-traumatic stress disorder or major depression in young women. Br J Psychiatry 184:482–487
Scott KM, Von Korff M, Angermeyer MC et al (2011) Association of childhood adversities and early-onset mental disorders with adult-onset chronic physical conditions. Arch Gen Psychiatry 68(8):838–844
Nanni V, Uher R, Danese A (2012) Childhood maltreatment predicts unfavorable course of illness and treatment outcome in depression: a meta-analysis. Am J Psychiatry 169(2):141–151
Pirkola S, Isometsa E, Aro H et al (2005) Childhood adversities as risk factors for adult mental disorders: results from the Health 2000 study. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 40(10):769–777
Koenen KC, Moffitt TE, Poulton R, Martin J, Caspi A (2007) Early childhood factors associated with the development of post-traumatic stress disorder: results from a longitudinal birth cohort. Psychol Med 37(2):181–192
Khoury L, Tang YL, Bradley B, Cubells JF, Ressler KJ (2010) Substance use, childhood traumatic experience, and posttraumatic stress disorder in an urban civilian population. Depression and Anxiety 27(12):1077–1086
Strine TW, Dube SR, Edwards VJ et al (2012) Associations between adverse childhood experiences, psychological distress, and adult alcohol problems. Am J Health Behav 36(3):408–423
Spratt EG, Back SE, Yeatts SD et al (2009) Relationship between child abuse and adult smoking. Int J Psychiatry Med 39(4):417–426
Zatti C, Rosa V, Barros A et al (2017) Childhood trauma and suicide attempt: a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies from the last decade. Psychiatry Res 256:353–358
Goodwin RD, Stein MB (2004) Association between childhood trauma and physical disorders among adults in the United States. Psychol Med 34(3):509–520
Korkeila J, Vahtera J, Korkeila K et al (2010) Childhood adversities as predictors of incident coronary heart disease and cerebrovascular disease. Heart 96(4):298–303
Tamayo T, Christian H, Rathmann W (2010) Impact of early psychosocial factors (childhood socioeconomic factors and adversities) on future risk of type 2 diabetes, metabolic disturbances and obesity: a systematic review. BMC Public Health 10:525
Stein DJ, Scott K, Haro Abad JM et al (2010) Early childhood adversity and later hypertension: data from the World Mental Health Survey. Ann Clin Psychiatry 22(1):19–28
Dong M, Giles WH, Felitti VJ et al (2004) Insights into causal pathways for ischemic heart disease: Adverse Childhood Experiences Study. Circulation 110(13):1761–1766
Paras ML, Murad MH, Chen LP et al (2009) Sexual abuse and lifetime diagnosis of somatic disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 302(5):550–561
Wegman HL, Stetler C (2009) A meta-analytic review of the effects of childhood abuse on medical outcomes in adulthood. Psychosom Med 71(8):805–812
Reuben A, Moffitt TE, Caspi A et al (2016) Lest we forget: comparing retrospective and prospective assessments of adverse childhood experiences in the prediction of adult health. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 57(10):1103–1112
Edwards VJ, Holden GW, Felitti VJ, Anda RF (2003) Relationship between multiple forms of childhood maltreatment and adult mental health in community respondents: results from the Adverse Childhood Experiences Study. Am J Psychiatry 160(8):1453–1460
Walker EA, Gelfand A, Katon WJ et al (1999) Adult health status of women with histories of childhood abuse and neglect. Am J Med 107(4):332–339
Huang MC, Schwandt ML, Ramchandani VA, George DT, Heilig M (2012) Impact of multiple types of childhood trauma exposure on risk of psychiatric comorbidity among alcoholic inpatients. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 36(6):1099–1107
Agorastos A, Pittman JO, Angkaw AC et al (2014) The cumulative effect of different childhood trauma types on self-reported symptoms of adult male depression and PTSD, substance abuse and health-related quality of life in a large active-duty military cohort. J Psychiatr Res 58:46–54
Anda RF, Felitti VJ, Bremner JD et al (2006) The enduring effects of abuse and related adverse experiences in childhood. A convergence of evidence from neurobiology and epidemiology. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 256(3):174–186
Briere J, Kaltman S, Green BL (2008) Accumulated childhood trauma and symptom complexity. J Trauma Stress 21(2):223–226
Suliman S, Mkabile SG, Fincham DS, Ahmed R, Stein DJ, Seedat S (2009) Cumulative effect of multiple trauma on symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety, and depression in adolescents. Compr Psychiatry 50(2):121–127
Anda RF, Brown DW, Felitti VJ, Bremner JD, Dube SR, Giles WH (2007) Adverse childhood experiences and prescribed psychotropic medications in adults. Am J Prev Med 32(5):389–394
Kaufman J, Plotsky PM, Nemeroff CB, Charney DS (2000) Effects of early adverse experiences on brain structure and function: clinical implications. Biol Psychiatry 48(8):778–790
Heim C, Nemeroff CB (1999) The impact of early adverse experiences on brain systems involved in the pathophysiology of anxiety and affective disorders. Biol Psychiatry 46(11):1509–1522
Felitti VJ, Anda RF, Nordenberg D et al (1998) Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: the Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study. Am J Prev Med 14(4):245–258
Nemeroff CB (2016) Paradise lost: the neurobiological and clinical consequences of child abuse and neglect. Neuron 89(5):892–909
Ulrich-Lai YM, Herman JP (2009) Neural regulation of endocrine and autonomic stress responses. Nat Rev Neurosci 10(6):397–409
Elenkov IJ, Chrousos GP (2006) Stress system—organization, physiology and immunoregulation. Neuroimmunomodulation 13(5–6):257–267
Nicolaides NC, Kyratzi E, Lamprokostopoulou A, Chrousos GP, Charmandari E (2015) Stress, the stress system and the role of glucocorticoids. Neuroimmunomodulation 22(1–2):6–19
Tsigos C, Chrousos GP (2002) Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, neuroendocrine factors and stress. J Psychosom Res 53(4):865–871
Chrousos GP, Gold PW (1992) The concepts of stress and stress system disorders. Overview of physical and behavioral homeostasis. JAMA 267(9):1244–1252
Frodl T, O’Keane V (2013) How does the brain deal with cumulative stress? A review with focus on developmental stress, HPA axis function and hippocampal structure in humans. Neurobiol Dis 52:24–37
Seo D, Tsou KA, Ansell EB, Potenza MN, Sinha R (2014) Cumulative adversity sensitizes neural response to acute stress: association with health symptoms. Neuropsychopharmacology 39(3):670–680
Lupien SJ, McEwen BS, Gunnar MR, Heim C (2009) Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition. Nat Rev Neurosci 10(6):434–445
Koolhaas JM, Bartolomucci A, Buwalda B et al (2011) Stress revisited: a critical evaluation of the stress concept. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 35(5):1291–1301
Charmandari E, Tsigos C, Chrousos G (2005) Endocrinology of the stress response. Annu Rev Physiol 67:259–284
Smith SM, Vale WW (2006) The role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in neuroendocrine responses to stress. Dialogues Clin Neurosci 8(4):383–395
Mullen PE, Martin JL, Anderson JC, Romans SE, Herbison GP (1996) The long-term impact of the physical, emotional, and sexual abuse of children: a community study. Child Abuse Negl 20(1):7–21
Pole N, Neylan TC, Otte C et al (2007) Associations between childhood trauma and emotion-modulated psychophysiological responses to startling sounds: a study of police cadets. J Abnorm Psychol 116(2):352–361
Mock SE, Arai SM (2010) Childhood trauma and chronic illness in adulthood: mental health and socioeconomic status as explanatory factors and buffers. Front Psychol 1:246
Raison CL, Miller AH (2003) When not enough is too much: the role of insufficient glucocorticoid signaling in the pathophysiology of stress-related disorders. Am J Psychiatry 160(9):1554–1565
Rohleder N, Wolf JM, Wolf OT (2010) Glucocorticoid sensitivity of cognitive and inflammatory processes in depression and posttraumatic stress disorder. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 35(1):104–114
Pervanidou P (2008) Biology of post-traumatic stress disorder in childhood and adolescence. J Neuroendocrinol 20(5):632–638
Nemeroff CB, Bremner JD, Foa EB, Mayberg HS, North CS, Stein MB (2006) Posttraumatic stress disorder: a state-of-the-science review. J Psychiatr Res 40(1):1–21
Yehuda R (2000) Biology of posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 61(Suppl 7):14–21
Stetler C, Miller GE (2011) Depression and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal activation: a quantitative summary of four decades of research. Psychosom Med 73(2):114–126
Pervanidou P, Chrousos GP (2010) Neuroendocrinology of post-traumatic stress disorder. Prog Brain Res 182:149–160
Ehlert U, Gaab J, Heinrichs M (2001) Psychoneuroendocrinological contributions to the etiology of depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, and stress-related bodily disorders: the role of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis. Biol Psychol 57(1–3):141–152
Heim C, Ehlert U, Hellhammer DH (2000) The potential role of hypocortisolism in the pathophysiology of stress-related bodily disorders. Psychoneuroendocrinology 25(1):1–35
Heim C, Nemeroff CB (2001) The role of childhood trauma in the neurobiology of mood and anxiety disorders: preclinical and clinical studies. Biol Psychiatry 49(12):1023–1039
Heim C, Newport DJ, Mletzko T, Miller AH, Nemeroff CB (2008) The link between childhood trauma and depression: insights from HPA axis studies in humans. Psychoneuroendocrinology 33(6):693–710
de Kloet CS, Vermetten E, Bikker A et al (2007) Leukocyte glucocorticoid receptor expression and immunoregulation in veterans with and without post-traumatic stress disorder. Mol Psychiatry 12(5):443–453
de Kloet ER, Joels M, Holsboer F (2005) Stress and the brain: from adaptation to disease. Nat Rev Neurosci 6(6):463–475
Yehuda R, Seckl J (2011) Minireview: Stress-related psychiatric disorders with low cortisol levels: a metabolic hypothesis. Endocrinology 152(12):4496–4503
Nemeroff CB (2004) Neurobiological consequences of childhood trauma. J Clin Psychiatry 65(Suppl 1):18–28
Teicher MH, Andersen SL, Polcari A, Anderson CM, Navalta CP (2002) Developmental neurobiology of childhood stress and trauma. The Psychiatric Clinics of North America 25(2):397–426 vii-viii
Heim C, Newport DJ, Miller AH, Nemeroff CB (2000) Long-term neuroendocrine effects of childhood maltreatment. JAMA 284(18):2321
Heim C, Newport DJ, Heit S et al (2000) Pituitary-adrenal and autonomic responses to stress in women after sexual and physical abuse in childhood. JAMA 284(5):592–597
Heim C, Mletzko T, Purselle D, Musselman DL, Nemeroff CB (2008) The dexamethasone/corticotropin-releasing factor test in men with major depression: role of childhood trauma. Biol Psychiatry 63(4):398–405
Heim C, Newport DJ, Bonsall R, Miller AH, Nemeroff CB (2001) Altered pituitary-adrenal axis responses to provocative challenge tests in adult survivors of childhood abuse. Am J Psychiatry 158(4):575–581
Lu S, Gao W, Huang M, Li L, Xu Y (2016) In search of the HPA axis activity in unipolar depression patients with childhood trauma: combined cortisol awakening response and dexamethasone suppression test. J Psychiatr Res 78:24–30
Butler K, Klaus K, Edwards L, Pennington K (2017) Elevated cortisol awakening response associated with early life stress and impaired executive function in healthy adult males. Horm Behav 95:13–21
Pesonen AK, Raikkonen K, Feldt K et al (2010) Childhood separation experience predicts HPA axis hormonal responses in late adulthood: a natural experiment of World War II. Psychoneuroendocrinology 35(5):758–767
Muhtz C, Wester M, Yassouridis A, Wiedemann K, Kellner M (2008) A combined dexamethasone/corticotropin-releasing hormone test in patients with chronic PTSD—first preliminary results. J Psychiatr Res 42(8):689–693
Tyrka AR, Wier L, Price LH et al (2008) Childhood parental loss and adult hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal function. Biol Psychiatry 63(12):1147–1154
Kumari M, Head J, Bartley M, Stansfeld S, Kivimaki M (2013) Maternal separation in childhood and diurnal cortisol patterns in mid-life: findings from the Whitehall II study. Psychol Med 43(3):633–643
Kellner M, Muhtz C, Peter F, Dunker S, Wiedemann K, Yassouridis A (2010) Increased DHEA and DHEA-S plasma levels in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder and a history of childhood abuse. J Psychiatr Res 44(4):215–219
Carpenter LL, Shattuck TT, Tyrka AR, Geracioti TD, Price LH (2011) Effect of childhood physical abuse on cortisol stress response. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 214(1):367–375
Voellmin A, Winzeler K, Hug E et al (2015) Blunted endocrine and cardiovascular reactivity in young healthy women reporting a history of childhood adversity. Psychoneuroendocrinology 51:58–67
Carpenter LL, Tyrka AR, Ross NS, Khoury L, Anderson GM, Price LH (2009) Effect of childhood emotional abuse and age on cortisol responsivity in adulthood. Biol Psychiatry 66(1):69–75
Hinkelmann K, Muhtz C, Dettenborn L et al (2013) Association between childhood trauma and low hair cortisol in depressed patients and healthy control subjects. Biol Psychiatry 74(9):e15–e17
Suzuki A, Poon L, Papadopoulos AS, Kumari V, Cleare AJ (2014) Long term effects of childhood trauma on cortisol stress reactivity in adulthood and relationship to the occurrence of depression. Psychoneuroendocrinology 50:289–299
Schalinski I, Elbert T, Steudte-Schmiedgen S, Kirschbaum C (2015) The cortisol paradox of trauma-related disorders: lower phasic responses but higher tonic levels of cortisol are associated with sexual abuse in childhood. PLoS One 10(8):e0136921
Kuhlman KR, Geiss EG, Vargas I, Lopez-Duran NL (2015) Differential associations between childhood trauma subtypes and adolescent HPA-axis functioning. Psychoneuroendocrinology 54:103–114
Kuhlman KR, Chiang JJ, Horn S, Bower JE (2017) Developmental psychoneuroendocrine and psychoneuroimmune pathways from childhood adversity to disease. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 80:166–184
Uematsu A, Matsui M, Tanaka C et al (2012) Developmental trajectories of amygdala and hippocampus from infancy to early adulthood in healthy individuals. PLoS One 7(10):e46970
Giedd JN (2012) The digital revolution and adolescent brain evolution. J Adolesc Health 51(2):101–105
Qiu A, Mori S, Miller MI (2015) Diffusion tensor imaging for understanding brain development in early life. Annu Rev Psychol 66:853–876
Daskalakis NP, Bagot RC, Parker KJ, Vinkers CH, de Kloet ER (2013) The three-hit concept of vulnerability and resilience: toward understanding adaptation to early-life adversity outcome. Psychoneuroendocrinology 38(9):1858–1873
Gunnar MR (1998) Quality of early care and buffering of neuroendocrine stress reactions: potential effects on the developing human brain. Prev Med 27(2):208–211
Gunnar MR, Wewerka S, Frenn K, Long JD, Griggs C (2009) Developmental changes in hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal activity over the transition to adolescence: normative changes and associations with puberty. Dev Psychopathol 21(1):69–85
Davis EP, Granger DA (2009) Developmental differences in infant salivary alpha-amylase and cortisol responses to stress. Psychoneuroendocrinology 34(6):795–804
Hostinar CE, Gunnar MR (2013) Future directions in the study of social relationships as regulators of the HPA axis across development. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 42(4):564–575
Hostinar CE, Sullivan RM, Gunnar MR (2014) Psychobiological mechanisms underlying the social buffering of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis: a review of animal models and human studies across development. Psychol Bull 140(1):256–282
Hostinar CE, Johnson AE, Gunnar MR (2015) Early social deprivation and the social buffering of cortisol stress responses in late childhood: an experimental study. Dev Psychol 51(11):1597–1608
Struber N, Struber D, Roth G (2014) Impact of early adversity on glucocorticoid regulation and later mental disorders. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 38:17–37
Cohen S, Janicki-Deverts D, Doyle WJ et al (2012) Chronic stress, glucocorticoid receptor resistance, inflammation, and disease risk. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 109(16):5995–5999
Kuhlman KR, Vargas I, Geiss EG, Lopez-Duran NL (2015) Age of trauma onset and HPA axis dysregulation among trauma-exposed youth. J Trauma Stress 28(6):572–579
McLaughlin KA, Sheridan MA, Tibu F, Fox NA, Zeanah CH, Nelson CA 3rd (2015) Causal effects of the early caregiving environment on development of stress response systems in children. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 112(18):5637–5642
Fuhrmann D, Knoll LJ, Blakemore SJ (2015) Adolescence as a sensitive period of brain development. Trends Cogn Sci 19(10):558–566
Galvan A, McGlennen KM (2013) Enhanced striatal sensitivity to aversive reinforcement in adolescents versus adults. J Cogn Neurosci 25(2):284–296
Somerville LH, Jones RM, Casey BJ (2010) A time of change: behavioral and neural correlates of adolescent sensitivity to appetitive and aversive environmental cues. Brain Cogn 72(1):124–133
Stroud LR, Foster E, Papandonatos GD et al (2009) Stress response and the adolescent transition: performance versus peer rejection stressors. Dev Psychopathol 21(1):47–68
Tornhage CJ (2002) Reference values for morning salivary cortisol concentrations in healthy school-aged children. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 15(2):197–204
Blumenthal H, Leen-Feldner EW, Badour CL, Trainor CD, Babson KA (2014) Pubertal maturation and cortisol level in response to a novel social environment among female adolescents. J Adolesc 37(6):893–900
Sumter SR, Bokhorst CL, Miers AC, Van Pelt J, Westenberg PM (2010) Age and puberty differences in stress responses during a public speaking task: do adolescents grow more sensitive to social evaluation? Psychoneuroendocrinology 35(10):1510–1516
van den Bos E, de Rooij M, Miers AC, Bokhorst CL, Westenberg PM (2014) Adolescents’ increasing stress response to social evaluation: pubertal effects on cortisol and alpha-amylase during public speaking. Child Dev 85(1):220–236
Solomon MB, Herman JP (2009) Sex differences in psychopathology: of gonads, adrenals and mental illness. Physiol Behav 97(2):250–258
Vaillancourt T, Duku E, Decatanzaro D, Macmillan H, Muir C, Schmidt LA (2008) Variation in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity among bullied and non-bullied children. Aggress Behav 34(3):294–305
Trickett PK, Gordis E, Peckins MK, Susman EJ (2014) Stress reactivity in maltreated and comparison male and female young adolescents. Child Maltreat 19(1):27–37
Bosch NM, Riese H, Reijneveld SA et al (2012) Timing matters: long term effects of adversities from prenatal period up to adolescence on adolescents’ cortisol stress response. The TRAILS study. Psychoneuroendocrinology 37(9):1439–1447
Licht CM, Vreeburg SA, van Reedt Dortland AK et al (2010) Increased sympathetic and decreased parasympathetic activity rather than changes in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity is associated with metabolic abnormalities. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95(5):2458–2466
Loewy AD, Spyer KM (1990) Central regulation of autonomic functions. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Davis AM, Natelson BH (1993) Brain-heart interactions. The neurocardiology of arrhythmia and sudden cardiac death. Texas Heart Institute Journal/from the Texas Heart Institute of St. Luke’s Episcopal Hospital, Texas Children’s Hospital 20(3):158–169
Saper CB (2004) Central autonomic system. In: Paxinos G (ed) The rat nervous system, 3rd edn. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 761–796
Stiedl O, Youn J, Jansen RF (2010) Cardiovascular conditioning: neural substrates. In: Koob GF, LeMoal M, Thompson RF (eds) Encyclopedia of behavioral neuroscience, vol 1. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 226–235
Thayer JF, Lane RD (2009) Claude Bernard and the heart-brain connection: further elaboration of a model of neurovisceral integration. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 33(2):81–88
Thayer JF, Sternberg E (2006) Beyond heart rate variability: vagal regulation of allostatic systems. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1088:361–372
Ter Horst GJ, Hautvast RW, De Jongste MJ, Korf J (1996) Neuroanatomy of cardiac activity-regulating circuitry: a transneuronal retrograde viral labelling study in the rat. Eur J Neurosci 8(10):2029–2041
Agorastos A, Boel JA, Heppner PS et al (2013) Diminished vagal activity and blunted diurnal variation of heart rate dynamics in posttraumatic stress disorder. Stress 16(3):300–310
Kemp AH, Quintana DS (2013) The relationship between mental and physical health: insights from the study of heart rate variability. Int J Psychophysiol 89(3):288–296
Kemp AH, Quintana DS, Gray MA, Felmingham KL, Brown K, Gatt JM (2010) Impact of depression and antidepressant treatment on heart rate variability: a review and meta-analysis. Biol Psychiatry 67(11):1067–1074
Bedi US, Arora R (2007) Cardiovascular manifestations of posttraumatic stress disorder. J Natl Med Assoc 99(6):642–649
Boscarino JA (2004) Posttraumatic stress disorder and physical illness: results from clinical and epidemiologic studies. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1032:141–153
Boscarino JA (2008) A prospective study of PTSD and early-age heart disease mortality among Vietnam veterans: implications for surveillance and prevention. Psychosom Med 70(6):668–676
Gorman JM, Sloan RP (2000) Heart rate variability in depressive and anxiety disorders. Am Heart J 140(4 Suppl):77–83
Carney RM, Freedland KE, Veith RC (2005) Depression, the autonomic nervous system, and coronary heart disease. Psychosom Med 67(Suppl 1):S29–S33
Harrison NA, Cooper E, Voon V, Miles K, Critchley HD (2013) Central autonomic network mediates cardiovascular responses to acute inflammation: relevance to increased cardiovascular risk in depression? Brain Behav Immun 31:189–196
Kamphuis MH, Geerlings MI, Dekker JM et al (2007) Autonomic dysfunction: a link between depression and cardiovascular mortality? The FINE study. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 14(6):796–802
Otte C, Neylan TC, Pole N et al (2005) Association between childhood trauma and catecholamine response to psychological stress in police academy recruits. Biol Psychiatry 57(1):27–32
O’Hare C, McCrory C, O’Leary N, O’Brien H, Kenny RA (2017) Childhood trauma and lifetime syncope burden among older adults. J Psychosom Res 97:63–69
Agorastos A, Kellner M, Baker DG, Stiedl O. Diminished vagal and/or increased sympathetic activity in post-traumatic stress disorder. In: Martin C, Preedy VR, Patel VB, eds. The Comprehensive Guide to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorders. Berlin (in print): Springer; 2015
De Bellis MD, Chrousos GP, Dorn LD et al (1994) Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis dysregulation in sexually abused girls. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 78(2):249–255
Gordis EB, Granger DA, Susman EJ, Trickett PK (2008) Salivary alpha amylase-cortisol asymmetry in maltreated youth. Horm Behav 53(1):96–103
Pervanidou P, Kolaitis G, Charitaki S et al (2007) Elevated morning serum interleukin (IL)-6 or evening salivary cortisol concentrations predict posttraumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents six months after a motor vehicle accident. Psychoneuroendocrinology 32(8–10):991–999
Pervanidou P, Kolaitis G, Charitaki S et al (2007) The natural history of neuroendocrine changes in pediatric posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after motor vehicle accidents: progressive divergence of noradrenaline and cortisol concentrations over time. Biol Psychiatry 62(10):1095–1102
Pace TW, Heim CM (2011) A short review on the psychoneuroimmunology of posttraumatic stress disorder: from risk factors to medical comorbidities. Brain Behav Immun 25(1):6–13
Pace TW, Hu F, Miller AH (2007) Cytokine-effects on glucocorticoid receptor function: relevance to glucocorticoid resistance and the pathophysiology and treatment of major depression. Brain Behav Immun 21(1):9–19
Menard C, Pfau ML, Hodes GE, Russo SJ (2017) Immune and neuroendocrine mechanisms of stress vulnerability and resilience. Neuropsychopharmacology 42(1):62–80
Steptoe A, Hamer M, Chida Y (2007) The effects of acute psychological stress on circulating inflammatory factors in humans: a review and meta-analysis. Brain Behav Immun 21(7):901–912
Chrousos GP (1995) The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and immune-mediated inflammation. N Engl J Med 332(20):1351–1362
Glaser R, Kiecolt-Glaser JK (2005) Stress-induced immune dysfunction: implications for health. Nat Rev Immunol 5(3):243–251
Sternberg EM (2006) Neural regulation of innate immunity: a coordinated nonspecific host response to pathogens. Nat Rev Immunol 6(4):318–328
Rohleder N, Karl A (2006) Role of endocrine and inflammatory alterations in comorbid somatic diseases of post-traumatic stress disorder. Minerva Endocrinol 31(4):273–288
Gill JM, Saligan L, Woods S, Page G (2009) PTSD is associated with an excess of inflammatory immune activities. Perspect Psychiatr Care 45(4):262–277
Hoge EA, Brandstetter K, Moshier S, Pollack MH, Wong KK, Simon NM (2009) Broad spectrum of cytokine abnormalities in panic disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder. Depression and Anxiety 26(5):447–455
Wei L, Simen A, Mane S, Kaffman A (2012) Early life stress inhibits expression of a novel innate immune pathway in the developing hippocampus. Neuropsychopharmacology 37(2):567–580
Chida Y, Sudo N, Sonoda J, Hiramoto T, Kubo C (2007) Early-life psychological stress exacerbates adult mouse asthma via the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 175(4):316–322
Danese A, Moffitt TE, Pariante CM, Ambler A, Poulton R, Caspi A (2008) Elevated inflammation levels in depressed adults with a history of childhood maltreatment. Arch Gen Psychiatry 65(4):409–415
Danese A, Pariante CM, Caspi A, Taylor A, Poulton R (2007) Childhood maltreatment predicts adult inflammation in a life-course study. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104(4):1319–1324
Danese A, JL S (2017) Psychoneuroimmunology of early-life stress: the hidden wounds of childhood trauma? Neuropsychopharmacology 42(1):99–114
Michopoulos V, Powers A, Gillespie CF, Ressler KJ, Jovanovic T (2017) Inflammation in fear- and anxiety-based disorders: PTSD, GAD, and beyond. Neuropsychopharmacology 42(1):254–270
Matteoli G, Boeckxstaens GE (2013) The vagal innervation of the gut and immune homeostasis. Gut 62(8):1214–1222
Ohira H, Matsunaga M, Osumi T et al (2013) Vagal nerve activity as a moderator of brain-immune relationships. J Neuroimmunol 260(1–2):28–36
Daskalakis NP, Cohen H, Nievergelt CM et al (2016) New translational perspectives for blood-based biomarkers of PTSD: from glucocorticoid to immune mediators of stress susceptibility. Exp Neurol 284(Pt B):133–140
Miller GE, Cohen S, Ritchey AK (2002) Chronic psychological stress and the regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines: a glucocorticoid-resistance model. Health Psychol 21(6):531–541
Avitsur R, Powell N, Padgett DA, Sheridan JF (2009) Social interactions, stress, and immunity. Immunol Allergy Clin N Am 29(2):285–293
Engler H, Bailey MT, Engler A, Stiner-Jones LM, Quan N, Sheridan JF (2008) Interleukin-1 receptor type 1-deficient mice fail to develop social stress-associated glucocorticoid resistance in the spleen. Psychoneuroendocrinology 33(1):108–117
Gan EH, Quinton R (2010) Physiological significance of the rhythmic secretion of hypothalamic and pituitary hormones. Prog Brain Res 181:111–126
Nader N, Chrousos GP, Kino T (2010) Interactions of the circadian CLOCK system and the HPA axis. Trends Endocrinol Metab 21(5):277–286
Qian X, Droste SK, Lightman SL, Reul JMHM, Linthorst ACE (2012) Circadian and ultradian rhythms of free glucocorticoid hormone are highly synchronized between the blood, the subcutaneous tissue, and the brain. Endocrinology 153(9):4346–4353
Oster H, Damerow S, Kiessling S et al (2006) The circadian rhythm of glucocorticoids is regulated by a gating mechanism residing in the adrenal cortical clock. Cell Metab 4(2):163–173
Clow A, Hucklebridge F, Stalder T, Evans P, Thorn L (2010) The cortisol awakening response: more than a measure of HPA axis function. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 35(1):97–103
Wu YH, Zhou JN, Balesar R et al (2006) Distribution of MT1 melatonin receptor immunoreactivity in the human hypothalamus and pituitary gland: colocalization of MT1 with vasopressin, oxytocin, and corticotropin-releasing hormone. J Comp Neurol 499(6):897–910
Charmandari E, Chrousos GP, Lambrou GI et al (2011) Peripheral CLOCK regulates target-tissue glucocorticoid receptor transcriptional activity in a circadian fashion in man. PLoS One 6(9):e25612
Chrousos GP, Kino T (2009) Glucocorticoid signaling in the cell. Expanding clinical implications to complex human behavioral and somatic disorders. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1179:153–166
Vandewalle G, Middleton B, Rajaratnam SM et al (2007) Robust circadian rhythm in heart rate and its variability: influence of exogenous melatonin and photoperiod. J Sleep Res 16(2):148–155
Portaluppi F, Tiseo R, Smolensky MH, Hermida RC, Ayala DE, Fabbian F (2012) Circadian rhythms and cardiovascular health. Sleep Med Rev 16(2):151–166
Kalsbeek A, Yi CX, la Fleur SE, Buijs RM, Fliers E. Suprachiasmatic nucleus and autonomic nervous system influences on awakening from sleep. Int Rev Neurobiol 2010;93:91–107
Germain A, Buysse DJ, Nofzinger E (2008) Sleep-specific mechanisms underlying posttraumatic stress disorder: integrative review and neurobiological hypotheses. Sleep Med Rev 12(3):185–195
Mellman TA, Hipolito MM (2006) Sleep disturbances in the aftermath of trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder. CNS Spectrums 11(8):611–615
Agorastos A, Kellner M, Baker DG, Otte C (2014) When time stands still. an integrative review on the role of chronodisruption in PTSD. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 27:385–392
Zelinski EL, Deibel SH, McDonald RJ (2014) The trouble with circadian clock dysfunction: multiple deleterious effects on the brain and body. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 24(40C):80–101 [Epub ahead of print]
Erren TC, Reiter RJ (2013) Revisiting chronodisruption: when the physiological nexus between internal and external times splits in humans. Naturwissenschaften 100(4):291–298
Meerlo P, Sgoifo A, Suchecki D (2008) Restricted and disrupted sleep: effects on autonomic function, neuroendocrine stress systems and stress responsivity. Sleep Med Rev 12(3):197–210
Weibel L, Maccari S, Van Reeth O (2002) Circadian clock functioning is linked to acute stress reactivity in rats. J Biol Rhythm 17(5):438–446
Pina G, Brun J, Tissot S, Claustrat B (2010) Long-term alteration of daily melatonin, 6-sulfatoxymelatonin, cortisol, and temperature profiles in burn patients: a preliminary report. Chronobiol Int 27(2):378–392
Paredes SD, Sanchez S, Parvez H, Rodriguez AB, Barriga C (2007) Altered circadian rhythms of corticosterone, melatonin, and phagocytic activity in response to stress in rats. Neuro Endocrinol Lett 28(4):489–495
Gogenur I, Ocak U, Altunpinar O, Middleton B, Skene DJ, Rosenberg J (2007) Disturbances in melatonin, cortisol and core body temperature rhythms after major surgery. World J Surg 31(2):290–298
Christiansen S, Bouzinova EV, Palme R, Wiborg O. Circadian activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis is differentially affected in the rat chronic mild stress model of depression. Stress. 2012
Touma C, Fenzl T, Ruschel J et al (2009) Rhythmicity in mice selected for extremes in stress reactivity: behavioural, endocrine and sleep changes resembling endophenotypes of major depression. PLoS One 4(1):e4325
Philbert J, Pichat P, Beeske S, Decobert M, Belzung C, Griebel G (2011) Acute inescapable stress exposure induces long-term sleep disturbances and avoidance behavior: a mouse model of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Behav Brain Res 221(1):149–154
Germain A (2013) Sleep disturbances as the hallmark of PTSD: where are we now? Am J Psychiatry 170(4):372–382
Mrdalj J, Pallesen S, Milde AM et al (2013) Early and later life stress alter brain activity and sleep in rats. PLoS One 8(7):e69923
Schafer V, Bader K (2013) Relationship between early-life stress load and sleep in psychiatric outpatients: a sleep diary and actigraphy study. Stress and Health: journal of the International Society for the Investigation of Stress 29(3):177–189
Greenfield EA, Lee C, Friedman EL, Springer KW (2011) Childhood abuse as a risk factor for sleep problems in adulthood: evidence from a U.S. national study. Ann Behav Med 42(2):245–256
Steine IM, Winje D, Krystal JH et al (2017) Cumulative childhood maltreatment and its dose-response relation with adult symptomatology: findings in a sample of adult survivors of sexual abuse. Child Abuse Negl 65:99–111
Wang Y, Raffeld MR, Slopen N, Hale L, Dunn EC (2016) Childhood adversity and insomnia in adolescence. Sleep Med 21:12–18
Baiden P, Fallon B, den Dunnen W, Boateng GO (2015) The enduring effects of early-childhood adversities and troubled sleep among Canadian adults: a population-based study. Sleep Med 16(6):760–767
Koskenvuo K, Hublin C, Partinen M, Paunio T, Koskenvuo M (2010) Childhood adversities and quality of sleep in adulthood: a population-based study of 26,000 Finns. Sleep Med 11(1):17–22
Taylor DJ, Pruiksma KE, Hale WJ et al (2016) Prevalence, correlates, and predictors of insomnia in the US Army prior to deployment. Sleep 39(10):1795–1806
Thordardottir EB, Hansdottir I, Valdimarsdottir UA, Shipherd JC, Resnick H, Gudmundsdottir B (2016) The manifestations of sleep disturbances 16 years post-trauma. Sleep 39(8):1551–1554
Petrov ME, Davis MC, Belyea MJ, Zautra AJ (2016) Linking childhood abuse and hypertension: sleep disturbance and inflammation as mediators. J Behav Med 39(4):716–726
Lind MJ, Aggen SH, Kendler KS, York TP, Amstadter AB (2016) An epidemiologic study of childhood sexual abuse and adult sleep disturbances. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice and Policy 8(2):198–205
Kajeepeta S, Gelaye B, Jackson CL, Williams MA (2015) Adverse childhood experiences are associated with adult sleep disorders: a systematic review. Sleep Med 16(3):320–330
Bader K, Schafer V, Schenkel M, Nissen L, Schwander J (2007) Adverse childhood experiences associated with sleep in primary insomnia. J Sleep Res 16(3):285–296
Mellman TA, Bustamante V, Fins AI, Pigeon WR, Nolan B (2002) REM sleep and the early development of posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 159(10):1696–1701
Mellman TA, Knorr BR, Pigeon WR, Leiter JC, Akay M (2004) Heart rate variability during sleep and the early development of posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry 55(9):953–956
Spoormaker VI, Montgomery P (2008) Disturbed sleep in post-traumatic stress disorder: secondary symptom or core feature? Sleep Med Rev 12(3):169–184
Malan-Muller S, Seedat S, Hemmings SM (2014) Understanding posttraumatic stress disorder: insights from the methylome. Genes Brain Behav. 13(1):52–68
Skelton K, Ressler KJ, Norrholm SD, Jovanovic T, Bradley-Davino B (2012) PTSD and gene variants: new pathways and new thinking. Neuropharmacology 62(2):628–637
Caspi A, McClay J, Moffitt TE et al (2002) Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science 297(5582):851–854
Caspi A, Sugden K, Moffitt TE et al (2003) Influence of life stress on depression: moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene. Science 301(5631):386–389
Gillespie CF, Phifer J, Bradley B, Ressler KJ (2009) Risk and resilience: genetic and environmental influences on development of the stress response. Depression Anxiety 26(11):984–992
Hauger RL, Olivares-Reyes JA, Dautzenberg FM, Lohr JB, Braun S, Oakley RH (2012) Molecular and cell signaling targets for PTSD pathophysiology and pharmacotherapy. Neuropharmacology 62(2):705–714
Binder EB, Bradley RG, Liu W et al (2008) Association of FKBP5 polymorphisms and childhood abuse with risk of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in adults. JAMA 299(11):1291–1305
Klengel T, Mehta D, Anacker C et al (2013) Allele-specific FKBP5 DNA demethylation mediates gene-childhood trauma interactions. Nat Neurosci 16(1):33–41
Bevilacqua L, Carli V, Sarchiapone M et al (2012) Interaction between FKBP5 and childhood trauma and risk of aggressive behavior. Arch Gen Psychiatry 69(1):62–70
Roy A, Gorodetsky E, Yuan Q, Goldman D, Enoch MA (2010) Interaction of FKBP5, a stress-related gene, with childhood trauma increases the risk for attempting suicide. Neuropsychopharmacology 35(8):1674–1683
Zimmermann P, Bruckl T, Nocon A et al (2011) Interaction of FKBP5 gene variants and adverse life events in predicting depression onset: results from a 10-year prospective community study. Am J Psychiatry 168(10):1107–1116
Ben-Efraim YJ, Wasserman D, Wasserman J, Sokolowski M (2011) Gene-environment interactions between CRHR1 variants and physical assault in suicide attempts. Genes Brain Behav 10(6):663–672
Bradley RG, Binder EB, Epstein MP et al (2008) Influence of child abuse on adult depression: moderation by the corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor gene. Arch Gen Psychiatry 65(2):190–200
Heim C, Bradley B, Mletzko TC et al (2009) Effect of childhood trauma on adult depression and neuroendocrine function: sex-specific moderation by CRH receptor 1 gene. Front Behav Neurosci 3:41
Teicher MH, Samson JA, Anderson CM, Ohashi K (2016) The effects of childhood maltreatment on brain structure, function and connectivity. Nat Rev Neurosci 17(10):652–666
White MG, Bogdan R, Fisher PM, Munoz KE, Williamson DE, Hariri AR (2012) FKBP5 and emotional neglect interact to predict individual differences in amygdala reactivity. Genes Brain Behav 11(7):869–878
Holz NE, Buchmann AF, Boecker R et al (2015) Role of FKBP5 in emotion processing: results on amygdala activity, connectivity and volume. Brain Struct Funct 220(3):1355–1368
Grabe HJ, Wittfeld K, Van der Auwera S et al (2016) Effect of the interaction between childhood abuse and rs1360780 of the FKBP5 gene on gray matter volume in a general population sample. Hum Brain Mapp 37(4):1602–1613
Bogdan R, Williamson DE, Hariri AR (2012) Mineralocorticoid receptor Iso/Val (rs5522) genotype moderates the association between previous childhood emotional neglect and amygdala reactivity. Am J Psychiatry 169(5):515–522
Bjornsson HT, Fallin MD, Feinberg AP (2004) An integrated epigenetic and genetic approach to common human disease. Trends Genet 20(8):350–358
Jaenisch R, Bird A (2003) Epigenetic regulation of gene expression: how the genome integrates intrinsic and environmental signals. Nat Genet 33(Suppl):245–254
Yehuda R, Bierer LM (2009) The relevance of epigenetics to PTSD: implications for the DSM-V. J Trauma Stress 22(5):427–434
Klengel T, Pape J, Binder EB, Mehta D (2014) The role of DNA methylation in stress-related psychiatric disorders. Neuropharmacology
Schmidt U, Holsboer F, Rein T (2011) Epigenetic aspects of posttraumatic stress disorder. Dis Markers 30(2–3):77–87
Zannas AS, Provencal N, Binder EB (2015) Epigenetics of posttraumatic stress disorder: current evidence, challenges, and future directions. Biol Psychiatry
Almli LM, Stevens JS, Smith AK et al (2015) A genome-wide identified risk variant for PTSD is a methylation quantitative trait locus and confers decreased cortical activation to fearful faces. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 168B(5):327–336
Wingo AP, Almli LM, Stevens JJ et al (2015) DICER1 and microRNA regulation in post-traumatic stress disorder with comorbid depression. Nat Commun 6:10106
Mehta D, Klengel T, Conneely KN et al (2013) Childhood maltreatment is associated with distinct genomic and epigenetic profiles in posttraumatic stress disorder. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 110(20):8302–8307
Trollope AF, Gutierrez-Mecinas M, Mifsud KR, Collins A, Saunderson EA, Reul JMHM (2012) Stress, epigenetic control of gene expression and memory formation. Exp Neurol 233(1):3–11
Stankiewicz AM, Swiergiel AH, Lisowski P (2013) Epigenetics of stress adaptations in the brain. Brain Res Bull 98:76–92
Reul JMHM (2014) Making memories of stressful events: a journey along epigenetic, gene transcription, and signaling pathways. Front Psychiatry 5:5
McGowan PO (2013) Epigenomic mechanisms of early adversity and HPA dysfunction: considerations for PTSD research. Front Psychiatry 4:110
Yehuda R, Daskalakis NP, Desarnaud F et al (2013) Epigenetic biomarkers as predictors and correlates of symptom improvement following psychotherapy in combat veterans with PTSD. Front Psychiatry 4:118
Yehuda R, Flory JD, Bierer LM et al (2015) Lower methylation of glucocorticoid receptor gene promoter 1F in peripheral blood of veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry 77(4):356–364
McGowan PO, Sasaki A, D’Alessio AC et al (2009) Epigenetic regulation of the glucocorticoid receptor in human brain associates with childhood abuse. Nat Neurosci 12(3):342–348
Oberlander TF, Weinberg J, Papsdorf M, Grunau R, Misri S, Devlin AM (2008) Prenatal exposure to maternal depression, neonatal methylation of human glucocorticoid receptor gene (NR3C1) and infant cortisol stress responses. Epigenetics 3(2):97–106
Houtepen LC, Vinkers CH, Carrillo-Roa T et al (2016) Genome-wide DNA methylation levels and altered cortisol stress reactivity following childhood trauma in humans. Nat Commun 7:10967
Bick J, Naumova O, Hunter S et al (2012) Childhood adversity and DNA methylation of genes involved in the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis and immune system: whole-genome and candidate-gene associations. Dev Psychopathol 24(4):1417–1425
Dannlowski U, Stuhrmann A, Beutelmann V et al (2012) Limbic scars: long-term consequences of childhood maltreatment revealed by functional and structural magnetic resonance imaging. Biol Psychiatry 71(4):286–293
Taylor SE (2010) Mechanisms linking early life stress to adult health outcomes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 107(19):8507–8512
Chen Y, Baram TZ (2016) Toward understanding how early-life stress reprograms cognitive and emotional brain networks. Neuropsychopharmacology 41(1):197–206
Grassi-Oliveira R, Ashy M, Stein LM (2008) Psychobiology of childhood maltreatment: effects of allostatic load? Rev Bras Psiquiatr 30(1):60–68
Paquola C, Bennett MR, Lagopoulos J (2016) Understanding heterogeneity in grey matter research of adults with childhood maltreatment—a meta-analysis and review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 69:299–312
Thomaes K, Dorrepaal E, Draijer N et al (2010) Reduced anterior cingulate and orbitofrontal volumes in child abuse-related complex PTSD. J Clin Psychiatry 71(12):1636–1644
Lim L, Radua J, Rubia K (2014) Gray matter abnormalities in childhood maltreatment: a voxel-wise meta-analysis. Am J Psychiatry 171(8):854–863
Van Dam NT, Rando K, Potenza MN, Tuit K, Sinha R (2014) Childhood maltreatment, altered limbic neurobiology, and substance use relapse severity via trauma-specific reductions in limbic gray matter volume. JAMA Psychiatry 71(8):917–925
van Velzen LS, Schmaal L, Jansen R et al (2016) Effect of childhood maltreatment and brain-derived neurotrophic factor on brain morphology. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 11(11):1841–1852
Aust S, Stasch J, Jentschke S et al (2014) Differential effects of early life stress on hippocampus and amygdala volume as a function of emotional abilities. Hippocampus 24(9):1094–1101
Edmiston EE, Wang F, Mazure CM et al (2011) Corticostriatal-limbic gray matter morphology in adolescents with self-reported exposure to childhood maltreatment. Arch Ped Adolesc Med 165(12):1069–1077
Coplan JD, Fathy HM, Jackowski AP et al (2014) Early life stress and macaque amygdala hypertrophy: preliminary evidence for a role for the serotonin transporter gene. Front Behav Neurosci 8:342
Swartz JR, Williamson DE, Hariri AR (2015) Developmental change in amygdala reactivity during adolescence: effects of family history of depression and stressful life events. Am J Psychiatry 172(3):276–283
Dannlowski U, Kugel H, Huber F et al (2013) Childhood maltreatment is associated with an automatic negative emotion processing bias in the amygdala. Hum Brain Mapp 34(11):2899–2909