Do No Harm in refugee humanitarian aid: the case of the Rohingya humanitarian response

Journal of International Humanitarian Action - Tập 6 - Trang 1-13 - 2021
Abu Faisal Md. Khaled1
1Dept. of International Relations, Bangladesh University of professionals (BUP), Dhaka, Bangladesh

Tóm tắt

The article broadly examines how humanitarian aid for Rohingya refugees inadvertently harmed poorer hosts and adversely affected local capacities for peace. The article also discusses possible ways of easing tension and improving social cohesion in the refugee-hosting areas, while also highlighting how policy- and mandate-related constraints hinder a humanitarian response anchored in the "Do No Harm" principle. Finally, the article concludes with the argument that the humanitarian agencies should not just limit themselves to identifying the unintended consequences and lapses in the intervention. Instead, the Do No Harm principle should lead humanitarian aid agencies to make an active effort to accept responsibility for the harm while taking all necessary steps to mitigate or avoid harming in future interventions.

Tài liệu tham khảo

ACAPS - Assessment Capacities Project. (2018, January). Rohingya crisis: host communities review. Retrieved 04 July, 2020, from ACAPS - Assessment Capacities Project: https://www.acaps.org/sites/acaps/files/products/files/20180131_npm_acaps_rohingya_crisis_host_communities.pdf ACAPS-NPM Analysis Hub. (2018, January). Thematic report Rohingya crisis: host community Review. Retrieved from https://www.acaps.org/sites/acaps/files/products/files/20180131_npm_acaps_rohingya_crisis_host_communities.pdf Alix-Garcia J, Saah D (2010) The effect of refugee inflows on host communities: evidence from Tanzania. World Bank Econ Rev 24(1):148–170 Alix-Garcia J, Walker S, Bartlett A, Onder H, Sanghi A (2018) Do refugee camps help or hurt hosts? The case of Kakuma, Kenya. J Dev Econ 130:66–83 Alsaafin, L. (2018, 10 August). Price hikes and jobs: how NGOs affect the economy in Cox’s Bazar. Retrieved 24 July, 2020, from Al Jazeera: https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2018/8/10/price-hikes-and-jobs-how-ngos-affect-the-economy-in-coxs-bazar Anas, A. (2020, 13 October). Education woes add to tensions outside Rohingya refugee camps. Retrieved 14 November, 2020, from The New Humanitarian: https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/news-feature/2020/10/13/Bangladesh-Rohingya-education Anderson M (1999) Do No Harm: how aid can support peace—or war. Lynne Rienner, Boulder, CO Anderson M (2000) Options for aid in conflict lessons from field experience. The Collaborative for Development Action, Inc., Cambridge Aoi C, Coning C, Thakur R (eds) (2007) Unintended consequences of peacekeeping operations. United Nations University Press, Tokyo Aukot E (2003) “It Is Better to Be a Refugee Than a Turkana in Kakuma”: Revisiting the Relationship between Hosts and Refugees in Kenya. Canada's Journal on Refugees, Refuge, pp 73–83 Banik, A. (2018). Strengthening complementarity in the humanitarian response to the Rohingya refugee crisis in Humanitarian Exchange, Special feature: Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh: the humanitarian response, Number 73. Retrieved October May, 2020, from https://odihpn.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/HE-73_web.pdf Barakat S, Zyck S (2009) The evolution of post-conflict recovery. Third World Q 30(6):1069–1086 Barbolet A, Goldwyn R, Groenewald H, Sherriff A (2005) The utility and dilemmas of conflict sensitivity. Berghof Research Center for Constructive Conflict Management, Berlin Barua U (2020) Bridging the North-South gap through localisation: the humanitarian response to the Rohingya refugee crisis. In: Kemmerling A, Richter S, Robiatti R (eds) Populism and a New Age of International Fragility: Seeking Policy Innovations 40 Years After the Brandt Report. Willy Brandt School of Public Policy at the University of Erfurt, Erfurt Beech, H. (2020, 04 December). From crowded camps to a remote island: Rohingya refugees move again. Retrieved 25 January, 2021, from https://www.nytimes.com/2020/12/04/world/asia/rohingya-bangladesh-island-camps.html:https://www.nytimes.com/2020/12/04/world/asia/rohingya-bangladesh-island-camps.html Berry, L. (2008). 'The impact of environmental degradation on refugee-host relations: a case study from Tanzania’. UNHCR New Issues in Refugee Research Working Paper, No.151. Retrieved from UNHCR: https://www.unhcr.org/47a315c72.html Black R (1994) Forced migration and environmental change: the impact of refugees on host environments. J Environ Manage 43(3):261–277 Bowden, M. (2018, October). The current context to the Rohingya crisis in Bangladesh. Retrieved 13 June, 2020, from Humanitarian Practice Network (HPN): https://odihpn.org/magazine/current-context-rohingya-crisis-bangladesh/ Brachet J, Wolpe H (2005) Conflict-sensitive development assistance: the case of Burundi (papers No. 27). The World Bank, Washington, DC Bryant, J., & Wake, C. (2018). Capacity and complementarity in the Rohingya response in Bangladesh. Retrieved 04 July, 2020, from https://www.odi.org/publications/11251-capacity-and-complementarity-rohingya-response-bangladesh CCNF (2019) CCNF position on JRP 2019 for Rohingya Response. CCNF, Cox’s Bazar CDA (2006) A review of CARE Nepal’s use of the Do No Harm Framework—executive summary. CDA, Cambridge, MA Center for Natural Resource Studies-CNRS (2019) Improved natural environment and peaceful co-existence for refugees and host communities project. Center for Natural Resource Studies-CNRS, Cox's Bazar Chambers R (1986) Hidden Losers? The impact of rural refugees and refugee programs on poorer hosts. Int Migr Rev 20(2):245–263 COAST. (2018, March). Fast responders are kept far! an assessment on localisation practice in the humanitarian response for FDMN. Retrieved 19 April, 2020, from https://coastbd.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/3.2-Fast-Reponders-Are-Kept-Far.pdf COAST. (2019, August). Who is building who's capacity? Poaching skilled staff from local organisations. Retrieved 21 July, 2020, from https://coastbd.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/1.10-Who-is-building-whos-capacity.pdf Crisp, J. (2018, October). Primitive people’: the untold story of UNHCR’s historical engagement with Rohingya refugees. Retrieved 22 October, 2020, from https://odihpn.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/HE-73_web.pdf Curtiss, R. (1993). In Somalia, the goal must be "Do No Harm". Retrieved 21 January, 2021, from Washington Report on Middle East Affairs: https://www.wrmea.org/1993-november-december/in-somalia-the-goal-must-be-do-no-harm.html Devereux S, Masset E, Sabates-Wheeler R, Samson M, Rivas A-M, te Lintelo D (2017) The targeting effectiveness of social transfers. J Dev Effectiveness 9(2):162–211 Di Giovanni A (2014) A pebble in the shoe: assessing the uses of Do No Harm in international assistance. Verfassung Recht Übersee Law Polit Africa Asia Latin Am 47(2):198–228 Energy and Environment Technical Working Group. (2018). Environmental activities overview. Retrieved 09 August, 2020, from https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/environment-2018-5-9_twopage_eetwg_summary9.pdf Grabska K (2011) Constructing 'modern gendered civilised' women and men: gender-mainstreaming in refugee camps. Gender Dev 19(1):81–93 Haider H (2014) Conflict sensitivity: topic guide. GSDRC, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK Harris S (2006) Disaster response, peace and conflict in post-tsunami Sri Lanka. University of Bradford. Retrived 25 January 2021, from https://bradscholars.brad.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/10454/931/CCR16.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y Harris S (2010) Humanitarianism in Sri Lanka: lessons learned? Feinstein Briefing Paper. Retrived 25 January 2021, from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.626.3380&rep=rep1&type=pdf Homer-Dixon, T. (1994). Environmental scarcities and violent conflict: evidence from cases. 19(1), pp. 5-40. Homer-Dixon T (1999) Environment, scarcity, and violence. Princeton University Press, New Jersey Hossain, A. (2020, 31 October). Far from home, Rohingya refugees face a new peril on a remote island. Retrieved 25 January, 2021, from BBC: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-54717686 Human Rights Watch. (2018, 15 November). Bangladesh: halt Rohingya repatriation plan. Retrieved 12 August, 2020, from Human Rights Watch: https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/11/15/bangladesh-halt-rohingya-repatriation-plan Human Rights Watch. (2019). Myanmar events of 2018. Retrieved 02 March, 2020, from Human Rights Watch: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2019/country-chapters/burma International Crisis Group. (2019, 27 December). A sustainable policy for Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh. Retrieved 25 January, 2021, from International Crisis Group: https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-asia/bangladesh/303-sustainable-policy-rohingya-refugees-bangladesh IOM. (2018, 30 01). Rohingya refugee crisis creates new generation of Bangladeshi aid workers: IOM. Retrieved 21 January, 2021, from IOM: https://www.iom.int/news/rohingya-refugee-crisis-creates-new-generation-bangladeshi-aid-workers-iom ISCG. (2018, May). Support to Bangladesh host communities in the Rohingya refugee response as of May 2018. Retrieved from https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/20180526_host_communities.pdf Jacobsen K (1994) The impact of refugees on the environment: a review of the evidence. Refugee Policy Group, Washington, D.C. Jacobsen K (1996) Factors influencing the policy responses of host governments to mass refugee influxes. Int Migr Rev 30(3):655–678 Jacobsen K (1997) Refugees’ environmental impact: the effect of patterns of settlement. J Refugee Stud 10(1):19–36 Jacobsen K (2002a) Can refugees benefit the state? Refugee resources and African statebuilding. The J Modern Afr Stud 40(4):577–596 Jacobsen K (2002b) Livelihoods in conflict: the pursuit of livelihoods by refugees and the impact on the human security of host communities. Int Migr 40(5):95–123 Jacobsen K (2006) Refugees and asylum seekers in urban areas: a livelihoods perspective. J Refugee Stud 19(3):273–286 Al Jazeera. (2020, 29 December). Bangladesh moves nearly 2,000 Rohingya refugees to remote island. Retrieved 25 January, 2021, from Al Jazeera: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/12/29/new-group-of-rohingya-refugees-moved-to-bangladesh-remote-island Khan, M. (2019, 01 March). Localising the Rohingya refugee response. Retrieved June 2020, from The Daily Star: https://www.thedailystar.net/star-weekend/news/localising-the-rohingya-refugee-response-1708642 Kibreab G (1999) The consequences of non-participatory planning: lessons from a livestock provision project to returnees in Eritrea. J Refugee Stud 12(2):135–160 Kok W (1989) Self-settled refugees and the socio-economic impact of their presence on Kassala, Eastern Sudan. J Refugee Stud 2(3):419–440 Landau LB (2004) Challenge without transformation: refugees, aid and trade in Western Tanzania. J Modern Afr Stud 42(1):31–59 Louis, P. (2019, 03 May). Rohingya refugees face no easy choices. Retrieved 08 June, 2019, from Nikkei Asian Review: https://asia.nikkei.com/Opinion/Rohingya-refugees-face-no-easy-choices Lui RN (2007) Such a long journey: protracted refugee situations in Asia. Glob Change Peace Secur 19(3):185–203 Mallick A (2020) Rohingya refugee repatriation from Bangladesh: a far cry from reality. J Asian Secur Int Affairs 7(2):202–206 Martin A (2005) Environmental conflict between refugee and host communities. J Peace Res 42(3):329–346 Maystadt J-F, Verwimp P (2014) Winners and losers among a refugee-hosting population. Econ Dev Cult Change 62(4):769–809 McInerney-Lankford S, Darrow M, Rajamani L (2011) Human rights and climate change: a review of the International Legal Dimensions. The World Bank, Washington, D.C. Oka R (2011) Unlikely cities in the desert: the informal economy as causal agent for permanent "Urban" sustainability in Kakuma Refugee Camp, Kenya. Urban Anthropol Stud Cult Syst World Econ Dev 40(3/4):223–262 Patel N (2019) The mantra of 'Do No Harm' in international healthcare responses to refugee people. In: Wenzel T, Drožđek B (eds) An Uncertain Safety: Integrative Health Care for the 21st Century Refugees. Springer. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-72914-5_7 Putzel, J. (2010). Do no harm: international support for state-building. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Reuters. (2019, 19 January). Rohingya insurgents attack police in western Myanmar, wounding six: state T.V. Retrieved 02 March, 2020, from Reuters: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-military/rohingya-insurgents-attack-police-in-western-myanmar-wounding-six-state-tv-idUSKCN1PD0P7 Reychler L (2006) Humanitarian aid for sustainable peace building. Working in Conflict-Working on Conflict, 135. In: Gibbons P, Piquard B (eds) Working in conflict – Working on conflict: Humanitarian dilemmas and challenges. University of Deusto, Bilbao, pp 135–154 Riak A (2000) The Local Capacities for Peace Project: the Sudan experience. Dev Pract 10(3-4):501–505 Ground Truth Solutions. (2020, July). Strengthening accountability to affected people. Retrieved 29 September, 2020, from http://groundtruthsolutions.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/GTS-Bangladesh-report-R4.pdf Taylor JE, Filipski MJ, Alloush M, Gupta A, Valdes RI, Gonzalez-Estrada E (2016) Economic impact of refugees. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 113(27):7449–7453 The Business Standard. (2020, 01 February). Cox’s Bazar locals feel the heat of rising costs. Retrieved 22 September, 2020, from The Business Standard: https://tbsnews.net/bangladesh/coxs-bazar-locals-feel-heat-rising-costs-41157 The Daily Star. (2017, 18 October). Rohingya influx puts locals into financial trouble. Retrieved 04 September, 2020, from The Daily Star: https://www.thedailystar.net/rohingya-crisis/rohingya-influx-puts-locals-into-financial-trouble-1478293 The Daily Star. (2018, 02 December). INGOs spending on Rohingyas: operations eating up a thick slice. Retrieved from The Daily Star: https://www.thedailystar.net/rohingya-crisis/news/ingos-spending-rohingyas-operations-eating-thick-slice-1667980 The Daily Star. (2019a, 08 October). Rohingya crisis deepens poverty among locals: W.B. Retrieved 15 January, 2021, from https://www.thedailystar.net/business/news/rohingya-crisis-deepens-poverty-among-locals-wb-1810873 The Daily Star. (2019b, 14 March). 'Tk 150 crore spent on hotel bills in 6 months'. Retrieved 03 July, 2020, from The Daily Star: https://www.thedailystar.net/city/news/tk-150-crore-spent-hotel-bills-6-months-1714909 The Daily Star. (2020, 29 July). Working in Cox's Bazar: local NGOs question U.N.'s fund allocation. Retrieved 04 November, 2020, from The Daily Star: https://www.thedailystar.net/city/news/working-coxs-bazar-local-ngos-question-uns-fund-allocation-1937837 The World Bank (2019) Bangladesh poverty assessment facing old and new frontiers in poverty reduction. The World Bank. The World Bank, Washington U.S. Department of State. (2016, 07 December). Protracted refugee situations. Retrieved August 2020, from U.S. Department of State: https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/prm/policyissues/issues/protracted/index.htm#:~:text=People%20in%20protracted%20refugee%20situations,situations%20is%20now%2026%20years. UNDP. (2018, November). Impacts of the Rohingya refugee influx on host communities. Retrieved 04 June, 2020, from https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Impacts%20of%20the%20Rohingya%20Refugee%20Influx%20on%20Host%20Communities.pdf UNDP & U.N. Women (2018) Report on environmental impact of Rohingya influx. UNDP Bangladesh, Dhaka Retrieved from https://www.bd.undp.org/content/bangladesh/en/home/presscenter/pressreleases/2018/03/11/final-stakeholders-consultation--environmental-impact-of-rohingy.html UNHCR (1983) Refugees in the developing world: a challenge to the International Community. UNHCR. UNHCR, Mont Pelerin, Switzerland UNHCR. (2011, June). UNHCR-NGO toolkit for practical cooperation on resettlement. community outreach - outreach to host communities: definitions and FAQs. Retrieved 09 July, 2020, from UNHCR: https://www.unhcr.org/protection/resettlement/4cd7d1509/unhcr-ngo-toolkit-practical-cooperation-resettlement-community-outreach.html UNHCR. (2017). Persons of concern to UNHCR. Retrieved 14 March, 2020, from https://www.unhcr.org/ph/persons-concern-unhcr UNHCR. (2018, 15 August). Rohingya emergency. Retrieved 02 March, 2020, from UNHCR: https://www.unhcr.org/rohingya-emergency.html UNHCR. (2019, 15 February). United Nations seeks US$920 million for Rohingya humanitarian crisis in 2019. Retrieved 19 October, 2020, from UNHCR: https://www.unhcr.org/news/press/2019/2/5c667ecf4/united-nations-seeks-us920-million-rohingya-humanitarian-crisis-2019.html United Nations. (2016, 23 May). Secretary-General, at Round Table, commits to making humanitarian action ‘Local as Possible, International as Necessary. Retrieved July 2020, from United Nations: https://www.un.org/press/en/2016/sgsm17778.doc.htm United Nations. (2020). The 2020 Joint Response Plan (JRP) for Rohingya humanitarian crisis. Retrieved 14 August, 2020, from https://reporting.unhcr.org/sites/default/files/2020%20JRP%20-%20March%202020_0.pdf USAID. (2018, October ). Rapid education & risk analysis Cox’s Bazar. Retrieved 27 September, 2020, from https://www.eccnetwork.net/sites/default/files/media/file/Rapid-Education-and-Risk-Analysis-Cox039s-Bazar-Final-Report.pdf Uvin P (1998) Aiding violence: the development enterprise in Rwanda. Kumarian Press, Connecticut Wake, C., & Bryant, J. (2018, December). Capacity and complementarity in the Rohingya response in Bangladesh. Retrieved 18 October, 2020, from Overseas Development Institute (ODI).: https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/resource-documents/12554.pdf Whitaker BE (2002, December) Refugees in Western Tanzania: the distribution of burdens and benefits among local hosts. J Refugee Stud 15(4):339–358