Distribution and Ecological Drivers of Spotted Fever Group Rickettsia in Asia
Tóm tắt
Spotted fever group and related rickettsia (SFGR) are a neglected group of pathogens that belong to the genus Rickettsia. SFGR are zoonotic and are transmitted by arthropod vectors, primarily ticks, fleas and mites to accidental hosts. These emerging and re-emerging infections are widely distributed throughout the world. Land-use change and increasing human–wildlife conflict compound the risk of SFGR infection to local people in endemic areas and travelers to these regions. In this article, we discuss the rickettsial organisms causing spotted fever and related diseases, their arthropod vectors in Asia and the impact of land-use change on their spread.
Tài liệu tham khảo
Acestor N, Cooksey R, Newton PN, et al. (2012) Mapping the aetiology of non-malarial febrile illness in Southeast Asia through a systematic review–terra incognita impairing treatment policies. PLoS One 7(9):e44269 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0044269
Angelakis E, Munasinghe A, Yaddehige I, et al. (2012) Detection of rickettsioses and Q fever in Sri Lanka. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 86(4):711–712. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2012.11-0424
Aung AK, Spelman DW, Murray RJ, Graves S (2014) Rickettsial infections in Southeast Asia: implications for local populace and febrile returned travelers. Am J Trop Med Hyg 91(3):451-60 https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.14-0191
Barbara KA, Farzeli A, Ibrahim IN, et al. (2010) Rickettsial infections of fleas collected from small mammals on four islands in Indonesia. J Med Entomol 47(6):1173-8
Bhengsri S, Baggett HC, Edouard S, et al. (2016) Sennetsu Neorickettsiosis, Spotted Fever Group, and Typhus Group Rickettsioses in Three Provinces in Thailand. Am J Trop Med Hyg 95(1):43-9 https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.15-0752
Brouqui P, Raoult D (2006) Arthropod-borne diseases in homeless. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1078:223-35 https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1374.041
Burnside WR, Brown JH, Burger O, Hamilton MJ, Moses M, Bettencourt LM (2012) Human macroecology: linking pattern and process in big-picture human ecology. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 87(1):194-208 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-185x.2011.00192.x
Camer GA, Alejandria M, Amor M, et al. (2003) Detection of antibodies against spotted fever group Rickettsia (SFGR), typhus group Rickettsia (TGR), and Coxiella burnetii in human febrile patients in the Philippines. Jpn J Infect Dis 56(1):26-8
Cane R (2010) Haemaphysalis longicornis Neumann, 1901 In: Profile New Zealand Biosecure Entomology Laboratory. https://www.smsl.co.nz/site/southernmonitoring/files/NZB/Ha%20longicornis%20Profile.pdf. Accessed 4 December 2018
Chikeka I, Dumler JS (2015) Neglected bacterial zoonoses. Clin Microbiol Infect 21(5):404-15 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmi.2015.04.022
Choi YJ, Jang WJ, Ryu JS, et al. (2005) Spotted fever group and typhus group rickettsioses in humans, South Korea. Emerging Infectious Diseases 11(2):237–244. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1102.040603
Clements GR, Lynam AJ, Gaveau D, et al. (2014) Where and how are roads endangering mammals in Southeast Asia’s forests? PLoS One 9(12):e115376 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0115376
Colonne PM, Eremeeva ME, Sahni SK (2011) Beta interferon-mediated activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription protein 1 interferes with Rickettsia conorii replication in human endothelial cells. Infect Immun 79(9):3733-43 https://doi.org/10.1128/iai.05008-11
Cropper M, Puri J, Griffiths C (2001) Predicting the location of deforestation: the role of roads and protected areas in North Thailand. Land Econ 77:172–186.
Dittrich S, Phommasone K, Anantatat T, et al. (2014) Rickettsia felis Infections and comorbid conditions, Laos, 2003-2011. Emerg Infect Dis 20(8):1402-4 https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2008.131308
Edouard S, Bhengsri S, Dowell SF, Watt G, Parola P, Raoult D (2014) Two human cases of Rickettsia felis infection, Thailand. Emerg Infect Dis 20(10):1780-1 https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2010.140905
FAO (2005) Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005 FAO Forestry Paper 147
Faruque LI, Zaman RU, Gurley ES, et al. (2017) Prevalence and clinical presentation of Rickettsia, Coxiella, Leptospira, Bartonella and chikungunya virus infections among hospital-based febrile patients from December 2008 to November 2009 in Bangladesh. BMC Infect Dis 17(1):141 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-017-2239-6
Finch C, Al-Damluji MS, Krause PJ, Niccolai L, Steeves T, O'Keefe CF, Diuk-Wasser MA (2014) Integrated assessment of behavioral and environmental risk factors for Lyme disease infection on Block Island, Rhode Island. PLoS ONE 9:e84758
Foley JA, Defries R, Asner GP, et al. (2005) Global consequences of land use. Science 309(5734):570-4 https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1111772
Fournier PE, Fujita H, Takada N, Raoult D (2002) Genetic identification of rickettsiae isolated from ticks in Japan. J Clin Microbiol 40(6):2176-81
Fournier PE, Raoult D (2009) Current knowledge on phylogeny and taxonomy of Rickettsia spp. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1166:1-11 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04528.x
Gillespie JJ, Williams K, Shukla M, et al. (2008) Rickettsia phylogenomics: unwinding the intricacies of obligate intracellular life. PLoS One 3(4):e2018 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0002018
Graves S, Stenos J (2009) Rickettsioses in Australia. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1166:151-5 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04530.x
Gray J, Dantas-Torres F, Estrada-Pena A, Levin M (2013) Systematics and ecology of the brown dog tick, Rhipicephalus sanguineus. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 4(3):171-80 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ttbdis.2012.12.003
Guo LP, Jiang SH, Liu D, Wang SW, Chen CF, Wang YZ (2016) Emerging spotted fever group rickettsiae in ticks, northwestern China. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 7(6):1146-1150 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ttbdis.2016.08.006
Haddad NM, Brudvig LA, Clobert J, et al. (2015) Habitat fragmentation and its lasting impact on Earth’s ecosystems. Sci Adv 1(2):e1500052 https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1500052
Han R, Yang J, Niu Q, et al. (2018) Molecular prevalence of spotted fever group rickettsiae in ticks from Qinghai Province, northwestern China. Infect Genet Evol 57:1-7 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2017.10.025
He JF, Zheng K, Li W, et al. (2003) [Study on spotted fever group Rickettsiae in Guangdong province]. Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi 24(8):700-3
Hechemy KE, Raoult D, Fox J, Han Y, Elliott LB, Rawlings J (1989) Cross-reaction of immune sera from patients with rickettsial diseases. J Med Microbiol 29(3):199-202 https://doi.org/10.1099/00222615-29-3-199
Imaoka K, Kaneko S, Tabara K, Kusatake K, Morita E (2011) The First Human Case of Rickettsia tamurae Infection in Japan. Case Reports in Dermatology 3(1):68–73. https://doi.org/10.1159/000326941
Inpankaew T, Hii SF, Chimnoi W, Traub RJ (2016) Canine vector-borne pathogens in semi-domesticated dogs residing in northern Cambodia. Parasit Vectors 9(1):253 https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-016-1552-z
Ishiguro F, Takada N, Fujita H, Noji Y, Yano Y, Iwasaki H (2008) Survey of the vectorial competence of ticks in an endemic area of spotted fever group rickettsioses in Fukui Prefecture, Japan. Microbiology and Immunology 52(6):305–309. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1348-0421.2008.00042.x
Izzard L, Fuller A, Blacksell SD, et al. (2010) Isolation of a novel Orientia species (O. chuto sp. nov.) from a patient infected in Dubai. J Clin Microbiol 48(12):4404-9 https://doi.org/10.1128/jcm.01526-10
Jang WJ, Choi YJ, Kim JH, et al. (2005) Seroepidemiology of spotted fever group and typhus group rickettsioses in humans, South Korea. Microbiol Immunol 49(1):17-24
Jiang J, Sangkasuwan V, Lerdthusnee K, et al. (2005) Human Infection with Rickettsia honei, Thailand. Emerg Infect Dis 11(9):1473-5 https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1109.050111
Jiang J, Soeatmadji DW, Henry KM, Ratiwayanto S, Bangs MJ, Richards AL (2006) Rickettsia felis in Xenopsylla cheopis, Java, Indonesia. Emerg Infect Dis 12(8):1281-3 https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1208.060327
Jones KE, Patel NG, Levy MA, et al. (2008) Global trends in emerging infectious diseases. Nature 451(7181):990-3 https://doi.org/10.1038/nature06536
Kalal BS, Puranik P, Nagaraj S, Rego S, Shet A (2016) Scrub typhus and spotted fever among hospitalised children in South India: Clinical profile and serological epidemiology. Indian J Med Microbiol 34(3):293-8 https://doi.org/10.4103/0255-0857.188315
Kato CY, Chung IH, Robinson LK, Austin AL, Dasch GA, Massung RF (2013) Assessment of real-time PCR assay for detection of Rickettsia spp. and Rickettsia rickettsii in banked clinical samples. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 51(1):314-7 https://doi.org/10.1128/jcm.01723-12
Keesing F, Belden LK, Daszak P, et al. (2010) Impacts of biodiversity on the emergence and transmission of infectious diseases. Nature 468(7324):647-52 https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09575
Khan SA, Bora T, Chattopadhyay S, Jiang J, Richards AL, Dutta P (2016) Seroepidemiology of rickettsial infections in Northeast India. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 110(8):487-94 https://doi.org/10.1093/trstmh/trw052
Kho KL, Koh FX, Hasan LI, et al. (2017) Rickettsial seropositivity in the indigenous community and animal farm workers, and vector surveillance in Peninsular Malaysia. Emerging Microbes & Infections 6(4):e18. https://doi.org/10.1038/emi.2017.4
Kho KL, Koh FX, Singh HKL, Zan HAM, Ponnampalavanar S, Kukreja A, Tay ST (2016) Spotted fever group rickettsioses and murine typhus in a Malaysian teaching hospital. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 95:765–768. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.16-0199
Kollars TM, Jr., Tippayachai B, Bodhidatta D (2001) Short report: Thai tick typhus, Rickettsia honei, and a unique rickettsia detected in Ixodes granulatus (Ixodidae: Acari) from Thailand. Am J Trop Med Hyg 65(5):535-7
Kularatne SA, Edirisingha JS, Gawarammana IB, Urakami H, Chenchittikul M, Kaiho I (2003) Emerging rickettsial infections in Sri Lanka: the pattern in the hilly Central Province. Trop Med Int Health 8(9):803-11
Kularatne SA, Rajapakse RP, Wickramasinghe WM, et al. (2013) Rickettsioses in the central hills of Sri Lanka: serological evidence of increasing burden of spotted fever group. Int J Infect Dis 17(11):e988-92 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2013.05.014
Kuo CC, Huang JL, Lin TE, Wang HC (2012) Detection of Rickettsia spp. and host and habitat associations of fleas (Siphonaptera) in eastern Taiwan. Med Vet Entomol 26(3):341–350. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2915.2012.01009.x
Kuo CC, Lin YF, Yao CT, et al. (2017) Tick-borne pathogens in ticks collected from birds in Taiwan. Parasit Vectors 10(1):587 https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-017-2535-4
Kuo CC, Shu PY, Mu JJ, Wang HC (2015) High prevalence of Rickettsia infections in small mammals in Taiwan. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 15(1):13-20. https://doi.org/10.1089/vbz.2014.1584
La Scola B, Raoult D (1997) Laboratory diagnosis of rickettsioses: current approaches to diagnosis of old and new rickettsial diseases. J Clin Microbiol 35(11):2715-27
Lai CH, Chang LL, Lin JN, et al. (2014) Human spotted fever group rickettsioses are underappreciated in southern Taiwan, particularly for the species closely-related to Rickettsia felis. PLoS One 9(4):e95810 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0095810
Laurance WF, Albernaz AKM, Schroth G, et al. (2002) Predictors of deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon. J Biogeogr 29:737–748
Lee JH, Park HS, Jung KD, et al. (2003) Identification of the spotted fever group rickettsiae detected from Haemaphysalis longicornis in Korea. Microbiology and Immunology 47(4):301–304
Levin ML (2018) Ambylomma spp. In: MSD Manual: Veterinary Manual. https://www.msdvetmanual.com/integumentary-system/ticks/amblyomma-spp. Accessed 10 December 2018
Li H, Cui XM, Cui N, et al. (2016) Human Infection with Novel Spotted Fever Group Rickettsia Genotype, China, 2015. Emerg Infect Dis 22(12):2153-2156 https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2212.160962
Li H, Zhang PH, Huang Y, et al. (2018) Isolation and Identification of Rickettsia raoultii in Human Cases: A Surveillance Study in 3 Medical Centers in China. Clin Infect Dis 66(7):1109-1115 https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/cix917
Liu D, Wang YZ, Zhang H, et al. (2016) First report of Rickettsia raoultii and in Melophagus ovinus, the sheep ked. Parasites and Vectors 9(1):600. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-016-1885-7
Luce-Fedrow A, Mullins K, Kostik AP, St John HK, Jiang J, Richards AL (2015) Strategies for detecting rickettsiae and diagnosing rickettsial diseases. Future Microbiol 10(4):537-64 https://doi.org/10.2217/fmb.14.141
Lv Y, Guo XG, Jin DC (2018) Research Progress on Leptotrombidium deliense. Korean J Parasitol 56(4):313-324 https://doi.org/10.3347/kjp.2018.56.4.313
Lynn MS, William T, Tanganuchitcharnchai A, et al. (2018) Spotted fever rickettsiosis in a wildlife researcher in Sabah, Malaysia: a case study. Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease 3(1):1
Ma SK, Wong WC, Leung CW, et al. (2011) Review of vector-borne diseases in Hong Kong. Travel Med Infect Dis 9(3):95-105 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmaid.2010.01.004
Mahara F (1997) Japanese spotted fever: report of 31 cases and review of the literature. Emerging Infectious Diseases 3(2):105–111. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0302.970203
Merhej V, Angelakis E, Socolovschi C, Raoult D (2014) Genotyping, evolution and epidemiological findings of Rickettsia species. Infect Genet Evol 25:122-37 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2014.03.014
Miyamoto M (2006) Forest conversion to rubber around Sumatran villages in Indonesia: comparing the impacts of road construction, transmigration projects and population. Forest Policy Econ 9:1-12
Myers SS, Patz JA (2009) Emerging Threats to Human Health from Global Environmental Change. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 34(1):223-252
Nagalingam K, Rolain JM, Thevanesam V, Lakkumar F, Gunawardana G, Raoult D (2009) Spotted fever rickettsioses in children in Sri Lanka. Clin Microbiol Infect 15 Suppl 2:330-1 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2008.02262.x
Nanayakkara DM, Rajapakse RP, Wickramasinghe S, Kularatne SA (2013) Serological evidence for exposure of dogs to Rickettsia conorii, Rickettsia typhi, and Orientia tsutsugamushi in Sri Lanka. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 13(8):545-9 https://doi.org/10.1089/vbz.2012.1049
Niang M, Parola P, Tissot-Dupont H, Baidi L, Brouqui P, Raoult D (1998) Prevalence of antibodies to Rickettsia conorii Ricketsia africae, Rickettsia typhi and Coxiella burnetii in Mauritania. Eur J Epidemiol 14(8):817-8
Noh Y, Lee YS, Kim HC, et al. (2017) Molecular detection of Rickettsia species in ticks collected from the southwestern provinces of the Republic of Korea. Parasit Vectors 10(1):20 https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-016-1955-x
Okabayashi T, Tsutiya K, Muramatsu Y, Ueno H, Morita C (1996) Serological survey of spotted fever group rickettsia in wild rats in Thailand in the 1970s. Microbiol Immunol 40(12):895-8
Parola P (2004) Tick-borne rickettsial diseases: emerging risks in Europe. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 27(5):297-304 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cimid.2004.03.006
Parola P, Cornet JP, Sanogo YO, et al. (2003a) Detection of Ehrlichia spp., Anaplasma spp., Rickettsia spp., and other eubacteria in ticks from the Thai-Myanmar border and Vietnam. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 41(4):1600-8
Parola P, Fenollar F, Badiaga S, Brouqui P, Raoult D (2001) First documentation of Rickettsia conorii infection (strain Indian tick typhus) in a Traveler. Emerg Infect Dis 7(5):909-10 https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0705.017527
Parola P, Miller RS, McDaniel P, et al. (2003b) Emerging rickettsioses of the Thai-Myanmar border. Emerg Infect Dis 9(5):592-5
Parola P, Paddock CD, Socolovschi C, et al. (2013) Update on tick-borne rickettsioses around the world: a geographic approach. Clin Microbiol Rev 26(4):657-702 https://doi.org/10.1128/cmr.00032-13
Parola P, Socolovschi C, Jeanjean L, et al. (2008) Warmer weather linked to tick attack and emergence of severe rickettsioses. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2(11):e338 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0000338
Patz JA, Daszak P, Tabor GM, et al. (2004) Unhealthy landscapes: Policy recommendations on land use change and infectious disease emergence. Environ Health Perspect 112(10):1092-8
Perez-Osorio CE, Zavala-Velazquez JE, Arias Leon JJ, Zavala-Castro JE (2008) Rickettsia felis as emergent global threat for humans. Emerg Infect Dis 14(7):1019-23 https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1407.071656
Phongmany S, Rolain JM, Phetsouvanh R, et al. (2006) Rickettsial infections and fever, Vientiane, Laos. Emerg Infect Dis 12(2):256-62 https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050900
PicKard AL, McDaniel P, Miller RS, et al. (2004) A study of’febrile illnesses on the Thai-Myanmar border: predictive factors of rickettsioses. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 35(3):657-63
Premaratna R (2016) Epidemiology and ecology of rickettsial Infections. International Journal of Infectious Diseases 45S 1–477
Premaratna R, Ariyaratna N, Attanayake C, Bandara W, Chandrasena N, de Silva HJ (2014) Rickettsial infection among military personnel deployed in Northern Sri Lanka. BMC Infect Dis 14:3864 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-014-0688-8
Premaratna R, Loftis AD, Chandrasena TG, Dasch GA, de Silva HJ (2008) Rickettsial infections and their clinical presentations in the Western Province of Sri Lanka: a hospital-based study. Int J Infect Dis 12(2):198-202 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2007.06.009
Quintero VJ, Paternina TL, Uribe YA, et al. (2017) Eco-epidemiological analysis of rickettsial seropositivity in rural areas of Colombia: A multilevel approach. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 11(9):e0005892 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0005892
Ramankutty N, Foley J (1999) Estimating historical changes in global land cover: Croplands from 1700 to 1992. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 13(4):997-1027
Rathi NB, Rathi AN, Goodman MH, Aghai ZH (2011) Rickettsial diseases in central India: proposed clinical scoring system for early detection of spotted fever. Indian Pediatr 48(11):867-72
Richards AL, Ratiwayanto S, Rahardjo E, et al. (2003) Serologic evidence of infection with ehrlichiae and spotted fever group rickettsiae among residents of Gag Island, Indonesia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 68(4):480-4
Robertson RG, Wisseman CL, Jr. (1973) Tick-borne rickettsiae of the spotted fever group in West Pakistan. II. Serological classification of isolates from West Pakistan and Thailand: evidence for two new species. Am J Epidemiol 97(1):55-64
Rodkvamtook W, Gaywee J, Kanjanavanit S, et al. (2013) Scrub typhus outbreak, northern Thailand, 2006-2007. Emerg Infect Dis 19(5):774-7 https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1905.121445
Rust MK (2017) The Biology and Ecology of Cat Fleas and Advancements in Their Pest Management: A Review. Insects 8(4) https://doi.org/10.3390/insects8040118
Rydkina E, Turpin LC, Sahni SK (2010) Rickettsia rickettsii infection of human macrovascular and microvascular endothelial cells reveals activation of both common and cell type-specific host response mechanisms. Infect Immun 78(6):2599-606 https://doi.org/10.1128/iai.01335-09
Satoh H, Tsuneki A, Inokuma H, Kumazawa N, Jahana Y, Kiyuuna T, Okabayashi T, Muramatsu Y, Ueno H, Morita C (2001) Seroprevalence of antibodies against spotted fever group rickettsia among dogs and humans in Okinawa, Japan. Microbiology and Immunology 45:85–87
Scientific Committee on Vector-borne Diseases (2013) Epidemiology, Prevention and Control of Spotted Fever in Hong Kong
Scinachi CA, Takeda G, Mucci LF, Pinter A (2017) Association of the occurrence of Brazilian spotted fever and Atlantic rain forest fragmentation in the Sao Paulo metropolitan region, Brazil. Acta Trop 166:225-233 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2016.11.025
Sentausa E, El Karkouri K, Robert C, Raoult D, Fournier PE (2012) Genome sequence of Rickettsia conorii subsp. indica, the agent of Indian tick typhus. J Bacteriol 194(12):3288-9 https://doi.org/10.1128/jb.00462-12
Slapeta J, Lawrence A, Reichel MP (2018) Cat fleas (Ctenocephalides felis) carrying Rickettsia felis and Bartonella species in Hong Kong. Parasitol Int 67(2):209-212 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.parint.2017.12.001
Stenos J, Roux V, Walker D, Raoult D (1998) Rickettsia honei sp. nov., the aetiological agent of Flinders Island spotted fever in Australia. Int J Syst Bacteriol 48 Pt 4:1399-404 https://doi.org/10.1099/00207713-48-4-1399
Sun J, Lin J, Gong Z, et al. (2015) Detection of spotted fever group Rickettsiae in ticks from Zhejiang Province, China. Exp Appl Acarol 65(3):403-11 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10493-015-9880-9
Tay ST, Ho TM, Rohani MY, Devi S (2000) Antibodies to Orientia tsutsugamushi, Rickettsia typhi and spotted fever group rickettsiae among febrile patients in rural areas of Malaysia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 94(3):280-4
Tay ST, Kamalanathan M, Rohani MY (2003) Antibody prevalence of Orientia tsutsugamushi, Rickettsia typhi and TT118 spotted fever group rickettsiae among Malaysian blood donors and febrile patients in the urban areas. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 34(1):165-70
Tay ST, Koh FX, Kho KL, Sitam FT (2015) Rickettsial infections in monkeys, Malaysia. Emerg Infect Dis 21(3):545-7 https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2103.141457
Tay ST, Mokhtar AS, Low KC, et al. (2014) Identification of rickettsiae from wild rats and cat fleas in Malaysia. Med Vet Entomol 28 Suppl 1:104-8 https://doi.org/10.1111/mve.12075
Tay ST, Rohani MY (2002) The use of the indirect immunoperoxidase test for the serodiagnosis of rickettsial diseases in Malaysia. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 33(2):314-20
Taylor AJ, Vongphayloth K, Vongsouvath M, et al. (2016) Large-Scale Survey for Tickborne Bacteria, Khammouan Province, Laos. Emerg Infect Dis 22(9):1635-9 https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2209.151969
Taylor LH, Latham SM, Woolhouse ME (2001) Risk factors for human disease emergence. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 356(1411):983-9 https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2001.0888
Tee TS, Kamalanathan M, Suan KA, et al. (1999) Seroepidemiologic survey of Orientia tsutsugamushi, Rickettsia typhi, and TT118 spotted fever group rickettsiae in rubber estate workers in Malaysia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 61(1):73-7
Trung NV, Hoi LT, Thuong NTH, et al. (2017) Seroprevalence of Scrub Typhus, Typhus, and Spotted Fever Among Rural and Urban Populations of Northern Vietnam. Am J Trop Med Hyg 96(5):1084-1087 https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.16-0399
Tsai KH, Lu HY, Huang JH, et al. (2009) African tick bite Fever in a Taiwanese traveler returning from South Africa: molecular and serologic studies. Am J Trop Med Hyg 81(5):735-9 https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2009.09-0101
Tsai KH, Lu HY, Tsai JJ, Yu SK, Huang JH, Shu PY (2008) Human case of Rickettsia felis infection, Taiwan. Emerg Infect Dis 14(12):1970-2 https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1412.080515
Tsui PY, Tsai KH, Weng MH, et al. (2007) Molecular detection and characterization of spotted fever group rickettsiae in Taiwan. Am J Trop Med Hyg 77(5):883-90
Vallee J, Thaojaikong T, Moore CE, et al. (2010) Contrasting spatial distribution and risk factors for past infection with scrub typhus and murine typhus in Vientiane City, Lao PDR. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 4(12):e909 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0000909
Varagnol M, Parola P, Jouan R, Beaucournu JC, Rolain JM, Raoult D (2009) First detection of Rickettsia felis and Bartonella clarridgeiae in fleas from Laos. Clin Microbiol Infect 15 Suppl 2:334-5 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2008.02272.x
Vitorino L, Chelo IM, Bacellar F, Ze-Ze L (2007) Rickettsiae phylogeny: a multigenic approach. Microbiology 153(Pt 1):160-8 https://doi.org/10.1099/mic.0.2006/001149-0
Watson JEM, Evans T, Venter O, et al. (2018) The exceptional value of intact forest ecosystems. Nat Ecol Evol 2(4):599-610 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-018-0490-x
Wei QQ, Guo LP, Wang AD, et al. (2015) The first detection of Rickettsia aeschlimannii and Rickettsia massiliae in Rhipicephalus turanicus ticks, in northwest China. Parasit Vectors 8:631 https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-015-1242-2
Worldometers (2018) Asia Population. In. http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/asia-population. Accessed 30 May 2018
Yang J, Tian Z, Liu Z, et al. (2016) Novel spotted fever group rickettsiae in Haemaphysalis qinghaiensis ticks from Gansu, Northwest China. Parasit Vectors 9:146 https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-016-1423-7
Zhang J, Lu G, Kelly P, et al. (2014) First report of Rickettsia felis in China. BMC Infect Dis 14:682 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-014-0682-1
Zhang JZ, Fan MY, Wu YM, Fournier PE, Roux V, Raoult D (2000) Genetic classification of “Rickettsia heilongjiangii” and “Rickettsia hulinii,” two Chinese spotted fever group rickettsiae. J Clin Microbiol 38(9):3498-501
Zhao SS, Li HY, Yin XP, Liu ZQ, Chen CF, Wang YZ (2016) First detection of Candidatus Rickettsia barbariae in the flea Vermipsylla alakurt from north-western China. Parasit Vectors 9(1):325 https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-016-1614-2