Discrimination and racial disparities in health: evidence and needed research
Tóm tắt
Từ khóa
Tài liệu tham khảo
Acevedo-Garcia, D., Lochner, K. A., Osypuk, T. L., & Subramanian, S. V. (2003). Future directions in residential segregation and health research: A multilevel approach. American Journal of Public Health, 93(2), 215–221.
Acevedo-Garcia, D., Osypuk, T. L., McArdle, N., & Williams, D. R. (2008). Toward a policy-relevant analysis of geographic and racial/ethnic disparities in child health. Health Affairs, 27(2), 321–333. doi: 10.1377/hlthaff.27.2.321 .
Ackerman, K. D., Heyman, R., Rabin, B. S., Anderson, B. P., Houck, P. R., Frank, E., et al. (2002). Stressful life events precede exacerbations of multiple sclerosis. Psychosomatic Medicine, 64, 916–920. doi: 10.1097/01.PSY.0000038941.33335.40 .
Adegbembo, A. O., Tomar, S. L., & Logan, H. L. (2006). Perception of racism explains the difference between Blacks’ and Whites’ level of healthcare trust. Ethnicity & Disease, 16(4), 792–798.
Ahmed, A., Mohammed, S., & Williams, D. R. (2007). Racial discrimination & health: Pathways & evidence. The Indian Journal of Medical Research, 126, 21–30.
Arce, C. H., Murguia, E., & Frisbie, W. P. (1987). Phenotype and life chances among Chicanos. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 9, 19–32.
Banks, A. D., & Dracup, K. (2006). Factors associated with prolonged prehospital delay of African Americans with acute myocardial infarction. American Journal of Critical Care, 15(2), 149–157.
Banks, K. H., Kohn-Wood, L. P., & Spencer, M. (2006). An examination of the African American experience of everyday discrimination and symptoms of psychological distress. Community Mental Health, 42(6), 555–570. doi: 10.1007/s10597-006-9052-9 .
Baum, A., Cohen, L., & Hall, M. (1993). Control and intrusive memories as possible determinants of chronic stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 55, 274–286.
Bauman, K. (1998). Direct measures of poverty as indicators of economic need: Evidence from the survey of income and program participation. U.S. Census Bureau Population Division Technical Working Paper No. 30.
Bazargan, M., Norris, K., Bazaragan-Hejazi, S., Akhanjee, L., Calderon, J. L., Safvati, S. D., et al. (2005). Alternative healthcare use in the under-served population. Ethnicity & Disease, 15, 531–539.
Beiser, M. N., & Hou, F. (2006). Ethnic identity, resettlement stress and depressive affect among Southeast Asian refugees in Canada. Social Science & Medicine, 63(1), 137–150. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.12.002 .
Belli, R. F. (1998). The structure of autobiographical memory and the event hisory calendar: Potential improvements in the quality of retrospective reports in surveys. Memory (Hove, England), 6(4), 383–406. doi: 10.1080/741942610 .
Benkert, R., Peters, R. M., Clark, R., & Keves-Foster, K. (2006). Effects of perceived racism, cultural mistrust and trust in providers on satisfaction with care. Journal of the National Medical Association, 98(9), 1532–1540.
Bennett, G. G., Wolin, K. Y., Robinson, E. L., Fowler, S., & Edwards, C. L. (2005). Perceived racial/ethnic harassment and tobacco use among African American young adults. American Journal of Public Health, 95(2), 238–240. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2004.037812 .
Bhattacharyya, M. R., & Steptoe, A. (2007). Emotional triggers of acute coronary syndromes: Strength of evidence, biological processes, and clinical implications. Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases, 49(5), 353–365. doi: 10.1016/j.pcad.2006.11.002 .
Bhui, K., Stansfeld, S., McKenzie, K., Karlsen, S., Nazroo, J., & Weich, S. (2005). Racial/ethnic discrimination and common mental disorders among workers: Findings from the EMPIRIC Study of Ethnic Minority Groups in the United Kingdom. American Journal of Public Health, 95(3), 496–501. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2003.033274 .
Birman, D., Tricket, E., & Buchanan, B. M. (2005). A tale of two cities: Replication of a study on the acculturation and adaptation of immigrant adolescents from the former Soviet Union in a different community context. American Journal of Community Psychology, 35(1/2), 83–101. doi: 10.1007/s10464-005-1891-y .
Blank, R. M., Dabady, M., & Citro, C. F. (2004). Measuring racial discrimination. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Blascovitch, J., Spencer, S. J., Quinn, D., & Steele, C. (2001). African Americans and high blood pressure: The role of stereotype threat. Psychological Science, 12(3), 225–229. doi: 10.1111/1467-9280.00340 .
Bonilla-Silva, E. (1996). Rethinking racism: Toward a structural interpretation. American Sociological Review, 62, 465–480. doi: 10.2307/2657316 .
Borrell, L. N., Jacobs, D. R. J., Williams, D. R., Pletcher, M. J., & Houston, T. K. (2007). Self-reported racial discrimination and substance use in the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Adults Study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 166(9), 1068–1079. doi: 10.1093/aje/kwm180 .
Borrell, L. N., Kiefe, C. I., Williams, D. R., Diez-Roux, A. V., & Gordon-Larsen, P. (2006). Self-reported health, perceived racial discrimination, and skin color in African Americans in the CARDIA study. Social Science & Medicine, 63(6), 1415–1427. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2006.04.008 .
Brave Heart, M. (2003). The historical trauma response among natives and its relationship with substance abuse: A Lakota illustration. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 35(1), 7–13.
Brave Heart, M., & DeBruyn, L. (1998). The American Indian Holocaust: Healing historical unresolved grief. American Indian and Alaska Native Mental Health Research, 8(2), 56–78.
Brody, G. H., Chen, Y. F., Murry, V. M., Ge, X., Simons, R. L., Gibbons, F. X., Gerrard, M., & Cutrona, C. (2006). Perceived discrimination and the adjustment of African American youths: A five-year longitudinal analysis with contextual moderation effects. Child Development, 77(5). doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00927.x .
Brondolo, E., Brady, N., Thompson, S., Tobin, J., Cassells, A., Sweeney, M., et al. (2008a). Perceived Racism and negative affect: Analyses of trait and state measures of affect in a community sample. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 27(2), 150–173. doi: 10.1521/jscp.2008.27.2.150 .
Brondolo, E., Libby, D., Denton, D., Thompson, S., Beatty, D., Schwartz, J., et al. (2008b). Racism and ambulatory blood pressure in a community sample. Psychosomatic Medicine, 70(1), 49–56. doi: 10.1097/PSY.0b013e31815ff3bd .
Brondolo, E., Rieppi, R., Kelly, K. P., & Gerin, W. (2003). Perceived racism and blood pressure: A review of the literature and conceptual and methodolgical critique. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 25(1), 55–65. doi: 10.1207/S15324796ABM2501_08 .
Brondolo, E., Thompson, S., Brady, N., Appel, R., Cassells, A., Tobin, J., et al. (2005). The relationship of racism to appraisals and coping in a community sample. Ethnicity & Disease, 15(4), 14–19.
Brook, D., Brook, J., Balka, E., & Rosenberg, G. (2006a). Predictors of rebellious behavior in childhood parental drug use, peers, school environment, and child personality. Journal of addictive disorders, 25(2), 77–87.
Brook, J., Morojele, N., Brook, D., Zhang, C., & Whiteman, M. (2006b). Personal, interpersonal and cultural predictors of stages of cigarette smoking among adolescents in Johannesburg, South Africa. Tobacco Control, 15(1), 48–53. doi: 10.1136/tc.2005.014878 .
Brosschot, J. F., Gerin, W., & Thayer, J. F. (2006). The perservative cognition hypothesis: A review of worry, prolonged stress-related physiological activation, and health. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 60, 113–124. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychores.2005.06.074 .
Brotman, D. J., Golden, S. H., & Wittstein, I. S. (2007). The cardiovascular toll of stress. Lancet, 370, 1089–1100. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61305-1 .
Broudy, R., Brondolo, E., Coakley, V., Brady, N., Cassells, A., Tobin, J. N., et al. (2007). Perceived ethnic discrimination in relation to daily moods and negative social interactions. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 30(1), 31–43. doi: 10.1007/s10865-006-9081-4 .
Brown, C., Matthews, K. A., Bromberger, J. T., & Chang, Y. (2006). The relation between perceived unfair treatment and blood pressure in a racially/ethnically diverse sample of women. American Journal of Epidemiology, 164(3), 257–262. doi: 10.1093/aje/kwj196 .
Brown, T. N., Williams, D. R., Jackson, J. S., Neighbors, H. W., Torres, M., Sellers, S. L., et al. (2000). Being black and feeling blue: The mental health consequences of racial discrimination. Race and Society, 2, 117–131. doi: 10.1016/S1090-9524(00)00010-3 .
Bryant, R. A. (2003). Early predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder. Society of Biological Psychiatry, 53, 789–795. doi: 10.1016/S0006-3223(02)01895-4 .
Butler, C., Tull, E. S., Chambers, E. C., & Taylor, J. (2002). Internalized racism, body fat distribution, and abnormal fasting glucose among African-Caribbean women in Dominica, West Indies. Journal of the National Medical Association, 94(3), 143–148.
Bynum, M. S., Burton, E. T., & Best, C. (2007). Racism experiences and psychological functioning in African American college freshmen: Is racial socialization a buffer? Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 13(1), 64–71. doi: 10.1037/1099-9809.13.1.64 .
Carr, D., & Friedman, M. A. (2005). Is obesity stigmatizing? Body weight, perceived discrimination, and psychological well-being in the United States. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 46, 244–259.
Carter, R. T. (2007). Racism and psychological and emotional injury: recognizing and assessing race-based traumatic stress. The Counseling Psychiatrist, 35(1), 13–105.
Casagrande, S. S., Gary, T. L., LaVeist, T. A., Gaskin, D. J., & Cooper, L. A. (2007). Perceived discrimination and adherence to medical care in a racially integrated community. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 22(3), 389–395. doi: 10.1007/s11606-006-0057-4 .
Casswell, S., Huckle, T., & Pledger, M. (2002). Survey data need not underestimate alcohol consumption. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 26(10), 1561–1567.
Chambers, E. C., Tull, E. S., Fraser, H. S., Mutunhu, N. R., Sobers, N., & Niles, E. (2004). The relationship of internalized racism to body fat distribution and insulin resistance among African adolescent youth. Journal of the National Medical Association, 96(12), 1594–1598.
Chen, F. M., Fryer, G. E., Jr, Phillips, R. L., Jr, Wilson, E., & Pathman, D. E. (2005). Patients’ beliefs about racism, preferences for physician race, and satisfaction with care. Annals of Family Medicine, 3(2), 138–143. doi: 10.1370/afm.282 .
Choi, Y., Harachi, T. W., Gillmore, M. R., & Catalano, R. F. (2006). Are multiracial adolescents at greater risk? Comparisons of rates, patterns, and correlates of substance use and violence between monoracial and multiracial adolescents. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 76(1), 86–97. doi: 10.1037/0002-9432.76.1.86 .
Clark, R. (2006a). Interactive but not direct effects of perceived racism and trait anger predict resting systolic and diastolic blood pressure in black adolescents. Health Psychology–Sep;(5).Related Articles. LinkOut, 25(5), 580–585.
Clark, R. (2006b). Perceived racism and vascular reactivity in black college women: Moderating effects of seeking social support. Health Psychology, 25(1), 20–25. doi: 10.1037/0278-6133.25.1.20 .
Clark, R., Anderson, N. B., Clark, V. R., & Williams, D. R. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model. The American Psychologist, 54(10), 805–816. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.54.10.805 .
Clark, R., Benkert, R. A., & Flack, J. M. (2006a). Large arterial elasticity varies as a function of gender and racism-related vigilance in black youth. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 39(4). doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2006.02.012 .
Clark, V. R., Cobb, R. E., Hopkins, R., & Smith, C. E. (2006b). Black racial identity as a mediator of cardiovascular reactivity to racism in African-American college students. Ethnicity & Disease, 16(1), 108–113.
Clark, R., & Gochett, P. (2006). Interactive effects of perceived racism and coping responses predict a school-based assessment of blood pressure in black youth. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 32(1), 1–9. doi: 10.1207/s15324796abm3201_1 .
Cohen, S., Janicki-Deverts, D., & Miller, G. E. (2007). Psychological stress and disease. Journal of the American Medical Association, 298(14), 1685–1687. doi: 10.1001/jama.298.14.1685 .
Cohen, S., Kessler, R. C., & Gordon, L. U. (1995). Strategies for measuring stress in studies of psychiatric and physical disorders. In S. Cohen, R. C. Kessler & U. G. Lynn (Eds.), Measuring stress: A guide for health and social scientists (pp. 3–26). New York: Oxford University Press.
Cozier, Y., Palmer, J. R., Horton, N. J., Fredman, L., Wise, L. A., & Rosenberg, L. (2006). Racial discrimination and the incidence of hypertension in US black women. Annals of Epidemiology, 16(9), 681–687. doi: 10.1016/j.annepidem.2005.11.008 .
Crimmins, E. M., Kim, J. K., Alley, D. E., Karlamangla, A., & Seeman, T. (2007). Hispanic paradox in biological risk profiles. American Journal of Public Health, 97(7), 1305–1310. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2006.091892 .
Crouter, A. C., Davis, K. D., Updegraff, K. A., Delgado, M., & Fortner, M. (2006). Mexican American Fathers’ occupational conditions: Links to family members’ psychological adjustment. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 68(4), 843–858. doi: 10.1111/j.1741-3737.2006.00299.x .
Dailey, A. B., Kasl, S. V., Holford, T. R., & Jones, B. A. (2007). Perceived racial discrimination and nonadherence to screening mammography guidelines: results from the race differences in the screening mammography process study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 165(11), 1287–1295. doi: 10.1093/aje/kwm004 .
Davis, S. K., Liu, Y., Quarells, R. C., Din-Dzietharn, R., & M.A.H.D.S.Group. (2005). Stress-related racial discrimination and hypertension likelihood in a population-based sample of African Americans: The Metro Atlanta Heart Disease Study. Ethnicity & Disease, 15(4), 585–593.
De Vogli, R., Brunner, E., & Marmot, M. G. (2007a). Unfairness and the social gradient of metabolic symdrome in the Whitehall II study. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 63, 413–419. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychores.2007.04.006 .
De Vogli, R., Ferrie, J., Chandola, T., Kivimaki, M., & Marmot, M. (2007b). Unfairness and health: Evidence from the Whitehall II Study. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 61(6), 513–518. doi: 10.1136/jech.2006.052563 .
DiMaggio, C., Galea, S., & Richardson, L. D. (2007). Emergency department visits for behavioral and mental health care after a terrorist attack. Annals of Emergency Medicine, 50(3), 327–334. doi: 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2006.10.021 .
Din-Dzietharn, R., Nembhard, W. N., Collins, R., & Davis, S. D. (2004). Perceived stress following race-based discrimination at work is associated with hypertension in African-Americans. The metro Atlanta heart disease study 1999–2001. Social Science & Medicine, 58, 449–461. doi: 10.1016/S0277-9536(03)00211-9 .
Dohrenwend, B. P. (2006). Inventorying stressful life events as risk factors for psychopathology: Toward resolution of the problem of intracategory variability. Psychological Bulletin, 132(3), 477–495. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.132.3.477 .
Dougall, A. L., Craig, K. J., & Baum, A. (1999). Assessment of characteristics of intrusive thoughts and their impact on distress among victims of traumatic events. Psychosomatic Medicine, 61, 38–48.
Dyrbye, L. N., Thomas, M. R., Eacker, A., Harper, W., Massie, F. S. J., Power, D. V., et al. (2007). Race, ethnicity, and medical student well-being in the United States. Archives of Internal Medicine, 167(19), 2103–2109. doi: 10.1001/archinte.167.19.2103 .
Epel, E., Lin, J., Wilhelm, F., Wolkowitz, O., Cawthon, R., Adler, N., et al. (2006). Cell aging in relation to stress arousal and cardiovascular diseases risk factors. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 31(3), 277–287. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2005.08.011 .
Etowa, J., Weins, J., Bernard, W. T., & Clow, B. (2007). Determinants of black women’s health in rural and remote countries. Canadian Journal of Nursing Research, 39(3), 56–76.
Evans, G. W., Jacobs, S. V., Dooley, D., & Catalano, R. (1987). The interaction of stressful life events and chronic strains on community mental health. American Journal of Community Psychology, 15(1), 23–34. doi: 10.1007/BF00919755 .
Facione, N. C., & Facione, P. A. (2007). Perceived prejudice in healthcare and women’s health protective behavior. Nursing Research, 56(3), 175–184. doi: 10.1097/01.NNR.0000270026.90359.4c .
Ferrie, M. J., Vahtera, J., Marmot, M. G., & Kivimaki, M. (2006). Injustice at work and incidence of psychiatric morbidity: The Whitehall II study. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 63, 443–450. doi: 10.1136/oem.2005.022269 .
Fischer, C. S., Hout, M., Jankowski, M. S., Lucas, S. R., Swidler, A., & Voss, K. (1996). Inequality by design: Cracking the bell curve myth. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Fix, M., & Struyk, R. J. (1993). Clear and convincing evidence: Measurement of discrimination in America. Washington, D.C: Urban Institute Press.
Forman, T. A. (2003). The social psychological costs of racial segmentation in the workplace: A study of African Americans’ well-being. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44(3), 332–352. doi: 10.2307/1519783 .
Fowler-Brown, A., Ashkin, E., Corbie-Smith, G., Thaker, S., & Pathman, D. E. (2006). Perception of racial barriers to health care in the rural South. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 17(1), 86–100. doi: 10.1353/hpu.2006.0022 .
Gee, G. C., Chen, J., Spencer, M., See, S., Kuester, O., Tran, D., et al. (2006a). Social support as a buffer for perceived unfair treatment among Filipino Americans: Differences between San Francisco and Hawaii. American Journal of Public Health, 96(4), 677–684. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2004.060442 .
Gee, G. C., Delva, J., & Takeuchi, D. (2007a). Relationships between self-reported unfair treatment and prescription medication use, illicit drug use, and alcohol dependence among Filipino Americans. American Journal of Public Health, 97(5), 933–940. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2005.075739 .
Gee, G. C., Ryan, A., Laflamme, D. J., & Holt, J. (2006b). Self-reported discrimination and mental health status among African descendents, Mexican Americans, and other Latinos in the New Hampshire REACH 2010 Initiative: The added dimension of immigration. American Journal of Public Health, 96(10), 1821–1828. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2005.080085 .
Gee, G. C., Spencer, M. S., Chen, J., & Takeuchi, D. (2007c). A nationwide study of discrimination and chronic health conditions among Asian Americans. American Journal of Public Health, 97(7), 1275–1282. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2006.091827 .
Gee, G. C., Spencer, M., Chen, J., Yip, T., & Takeuchi, D. (2007b). The association between self-reported racial discrimination and 12-month DSM-IV mental disorders among Asian Americans nationwide. Social Science & Medicine, 64(10), 1984–1996. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.02.013 .
Gibbons, F. X, Yeh, H. C., Gerrard, M., Cleveland, M. J., Cutrona, C., Simons, R. L., & Brody, G. H. (2007). Early experience with racial discrimination and conduct disorder as predictors of subsequent drug use: A critical period hypothesis. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 88(Suppl 1), 27–37.
Goldsmith, A. H., Hamilton, Darrick., & Darity, William, Jr. (2007). From dark to light: Skin color and wages among African-Americans. The Journal of Human Resources, 42(4), 701–738.
Gomez, J. P., & Trierweiler, S. (2001). Does discrimination terminology create response bias in questionnaire studies of discrimination? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(5), 630–638. doi: 10.1177/0146167201275011 .
Green, A. R., Carney, D. R., Pallin, D. J., Ngo, L. H., Raymond, K. L., Iezzoni, L. I., et al. (2007). Implicit bias among physicians and its prediction of thrombolysis decisions for black and white patients. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 22(9), 1231–1238. doi: 10.1007/s11606-007-0258-5 .
Greene, M. L., Way, N., & Pahl, K. (2006). Trajectories of perceived adult and peer discrimination among Black, Latino, and Asian American adolescents: Patterns and psychological correlates. Developmental Psychology, 42(2), 218–236. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.42.2.218 .
Guyll, M., Matthews, K. A., & Bromberger, J. T. (2001). Discrimination and unfair treatment: Relationship to cardiovascular reactivity among African American and European American women. Health Psychology, 20(5), 315–325. doi: 10.1037/0278-6133.20.5.315 .
Harrell, S. P. (1997). The Racism and Life Experience Scales (RaLES): Self-administration version. Los Angeles, CA: California School of Professional Psychology.
Harris, R., Tobias, M., Jeffreys, M., Waldegrave, K., Karlsen, S., & Nazroo, J. (2006a). Effects of self-reported racial discrimination and deprivation on Māori health and inequalities in New Zealand: Cross-sectional study. Lancet, 367(9527), 2005–2009. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68890-9 .
Harris, R., Tobias, M., Jeffreys, M., Waldegrave, K., Karlsen, S., & Nazroo, J. (2006b). Racism and health: The relationship between experience of racial discrimination and health in New Zealand. Social Science & Medicine, 63(6), 1428–1441. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2006.04.009 .
Harvey, A. G., & Bryant, R. A. (2000). Memory for acute stress disorder symptoms: a two-year prospective study. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 188(9), 602–607. doi: 10.1097/00005053-200009000-00007 .
Harvey, A. G., & Bryant, R. A. (2002). Acute stress disorder: A synthesis and critique. Psychological Bulletin, 128(6), 886–902. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.128.6.886 .
Hoyo, C., Yarnall, S. H., Skinner, C. S., Moorman, P. G., Sellers, D., & Reid, L. (2005). Pain predicts non adherence to pap swear screening among middle-aged African American Women. Preventive Medicine, 41, 439–445. doi: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2004.11.021 .
Jackson, B., Kubzansky, L. D., & Wright, R. J. (2006). Linking perceived unfairness to physical health: The perceived unfairness model. Review of General Psychology, 10(1), 21–40. doi: 10.1037/1089-2680.10.1.21 .
Jang, Y., Kim, G., & Chiriboga, D. A. (2005). Health, healthcare utilization, and satisfaction with service: Barriers and facilitators for older Korean Americans. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 53(9), 1613–1617. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2005.53518.x .
Jones, J. M. (1997). Prejudice and racism. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Inc.
Jones, C. P. (2000). Levels of racism: A theoretical framework and a gardener’s tale. American Journal of Public Health, 90(8), 1212–1215.
Kalichman, S. C., Simbayi, L. C., Kagee, A., Toefy, Y., Jootse, S., Cain, D., et al. (2006). Associations of poverty, substance use and HIV transmission risk behaviors in three South African Communities. Social Science & Medicine, 62, 1641–1649. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.08.021 .
Karlsen, S., Nazroo, J. Y., McKenzie, K., Bhui, K., & Weich, S. (2005). Racism, psychosis and common mental disorder among ethnic minority groups in England. Psychological Medicine, 35(12), 1795–1803. doi: 10.1017/S0033291705005830 .
Kaufman, J. S., Cooper, R. S., & McGee, D. L. (1997). Socioeconomic status and health in blacks and whites: The problem of residual confounding and the resiliency of race. Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass), 8, 621–628. doi: 10.1097/00001648-199710000-00002 .
Keith, V. M., & Herring, C. (1991). Skin tone and stratification in the black community. American Journal of Sociology, 97(3), 760–778. doi: 10.1086/229819 .
Kessler, R. C., Galea, S., Gruber, M. J., Sampson, N. A., Ursano, R. J., & Wessely, S. (2008). Trends in mental illness and suicidality after Hurricane Katrina. Journal of Molecular Psychiatry, 13, 374–384. doi: 10.1038/sj.mp.4002119 .
Kessler, R. C., Mickelson, K. D., & Williams, D. R. (1999). The prevalence, distribution, and mental health correlates of perceived discrimination in the United States. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 40, 208–230. doi: 10.2307/2676349 .
Khaylis, A., Waelde, L. C., & Bruce, E. J. (2007). The role of ethnic identity in the relationship of race-related stress to PTSD symptoms among young adults. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 8(4), 91–105. doi: 10.1300/J229v08n04_06 .
King, K. R. (2005). Why is discrimination stressful? The mediating role of cognitive appraisal. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 11(3), 202–212. doi: 10.1037/1099-9809.11.3.202 .
Kraus, V., & Koresh, Y. (1992). The course of residential segregation: Ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and suburbanization in Israel. The Sociological Quarterly, 33, 303–319. doi: 10.1111/j.1533-8525.1992.tb00377.x .
Kressin, N. R., Kristal, R. L., & Manze, M. (2008). Perceptions of race/ethnicity based discrimination: A review of measures and evaluation of their usefullness for the health care setting. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 19, 697–730. doi: 10.1353/hpu.0.0041 .
Krieger, N. (1990). Racial and gender discrimination: Risk Factors for high blood pressure? Social Science & Medicine, 30(12), 1273–1281. doi: 10.1016/0277-9536(90)90307-E .
Krieger, N. (1999). Embodying Inequality: A review of concepts, measures, and methods for studying health consequences of discrimination. International Journal of Health Services, 29(2), 295–352. doi: 10.2190/M11W-VWXE-KQM9-G97Q .
Krieger, N., Smith, K., Naishadham, D., Hartman, C., & Barbeau, E. M. (2005). Experiences of discrimination: Validity and reliability of a self-report measure for population health research on racism and health. Social Science & Medicine, 61(7), 1576–1596. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.03.006 .
Krysan, M., & Couper, M. P. (2003). Race in the live and virtual interview: Racial deference, social desirability, and activation effects in attitude surveys. Social Psychology Quarterly, 66(4), 364–383. doi: 10.2307/1519835 .
Kubany, E. S., Haynes, S. N., Leisen, M. B., Owens, J. A., Kaplan, A. S., Watson, S. B., et al. (2000). Development and preliminary validation of a brief broad-spectrum measure of trauma exposure: The Traumatic Life Events Questionnaire. Psychological Assessment, 12(2), 210–224. doi: 10.1037/1040-3590.12.2.210 .
Kung, H. C., Hoyert, D. L., Xu, J., & Murphy, S. L. (2008). Deaths: Final data for 2005. National Vital Statistics Reports, 56(10), 4–26.
Lam, B. (2007). Impact of perceived racial discrimination and collective self-esteem on psychological distress among vietnamese-american college students: Sense of coherence as mediator. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 77(3), 370–376. doi: 10.1037/0002-9432.77.3.370 .
Lam, A. M., Tsoi, K. W., & Chan, T. S. (2005). Adolescent Chinese immigrants in Hong Kong: A comparison with locally born students and factors associated with their psychological well-being. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health, 17(2), 157–168.
Landrine, H., & Klonoff, E. A. (1996). The schedule of racist events: A measure of racial discrimination and a study of its negative physical and mental health consequences. The Journal of Black Psychology, 22(2), 144–168. doi: 10.1177/00957984960222002 .
Landrine, H., Klonoff, E. A., Corral, I., Fernandez, S., & Roesch, S. (2006). Conceptualizing and measuring ethnic discrimination in health research. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 29(1), 79–94. doi: 10.1007/s10865-005-9029-0 .
Larson, A., Gillies, M., Howard, P. J., & Coffin, J. (2007). It’s enough to make you sick: The impact of racism on the health of Aboriginal Australians. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 31(4). doi: 10.1111/j.1753–6405.2007.00079.x .
Lauderdale, D. S. (2006). Birth outcomes for Arabic-named women in California before and after September 11. Demography, 43(1), 185–201. doi: 10.1353/dem.2006.0008 .
Lepore, S. J., Evans, G. W., & Palsane, M. N. (1991). Social hassles and psychological health in the context of chronic crowding. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 32, 357–367. doi: 10.2307/2137103 .
Lepore, S. J., Revenson, T. A., Weinberger, S. L., Weston, P., Frisina, P. G., Robertson, R., et al. (2006). Effects of social stressors on cardiovascular reactivity in Black and White women. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 31(2), 120–127. doi: 10.1207/s15324796abm3102_3 .
Levine, R. S., Foster, J. E., Fullilove, R. E., Briggs, N. C., Hull, P. C., Husaini, B. A., et al. (2001). Black-white inequalities in mortality and life expectancy, 1933–1999: Implications for Healthy People 2010. Public Health Reports, 116, 474–483.
Levy, B. R., Slade, M. D., Kasl, S., & Kunker, S. R. (2002). Longevity increased by positive self-perceptions of aging. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(2), 261–270. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.83.2.261 .
Lewis, T., Everson-Rose, S., Powell, L. H., Matthews, K. A., Brown, C., Karavolos, K., et al. (2006). Chronic exposure to everyday discrimination and coronary artery calcification in African-American women: The SWAN Heart Study. Psychosomatic Medicine, 68, 362–368. doi: 10.1097/01.psy.0000221360.94700.16 .
Lincoln, K. D., Chatters, L. M., Taylor, R. J., & Jackson, J. S. (2007). Profiles of depressive symptoms among African Americans and Caribbean Blacks. Social Science & Medicine, 65, 200–213. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.02.038 .
Lindström, M. (2008). Social capital, anticipated ethnic discrimination and self-reported psychological health: A population-based study. Social Science & Medicine, 66(1), 1–13. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.07.023 .
Locher, J. R., Roth, C. S., Sawyer-Baker, P., Bodner, E., & Allman, R. M. (2005). Soclai isolation, support, and capital and nutirtional risk in an older sample: Ethnic and gender differences. Social Science & Medicine, 60, 747–761. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.06.023 .
Major, B., Kaiser, C. R., O’Brien, L. T., & McCoy, S. K. (2007). Perceived discrimination as worldview threat or worldview confirmation: Implications for self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(6), 1068–1086. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1068 .
Malat, J., & Hamilton, M. A. (2006). Preference for same-race health care providers and perceptions of interpersonal discrimination in health care. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 47(2), 173–187.
Malat, J., & van Ryn, M. (2005). African-American preference for same-race healthcare providers: The role of healthcare discrimination. Ethnicity & Disease, 15(4), 740–747.
Matthews, K. A., Salomon, K., Kenyon, K., & Zhou, F. (2005). Unfair treatment, discrimination, and ambulatory blood pressure in black and white adolescents. Health Psychology, 24(3), 258–265. doi: 10.1037/0278-6133.24.3.258 .
Mays, V. M., Cochran, S. D., & Barnes, N. W. (2007). Race, race-based discrimination, and health outcomes among African Americans. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 201–225. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190212 .
McNeilly, M. D., Anderson, N. B., Armstead, C. A., Clark, R., Corbett, M., Robinson, E. L., et al. (1996). The percieved racism scale: A multidimensional assessment of the experience of white racism among African Americans. Ethnicity and Disease, 6(1,2), 154–166.
Merritt, M. M., Bennett, G. G., Jr, Williams, R. B., Edwards, C. L., & Sollers, J., 3rd. (2006). Perceived racism and cardiovascular reactivity and recovery to personally relevant stress. Health Psychology, 25(3), 364–369. doi: 10.1037/0278-6133.25.3.364 .
Miller, G. V., & Travers, C. J. (2005). Ethnicity and the experience of work: Job stress and satisfaction of minority ethnic teachers in the UK. International Review of Psychiatry (Abingdon England), 17(5), 317–327. doi: 10.1080/09540260500238470 .
Monroe, S. M. (2008). Modern approaches to conceptualizing and measuring human life stress. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 33–52. doi: 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.4.022007.141207 .
Montgomery, E., & Foldspang, A. (2007). Discrimination, mental problems and social adaptation in young refugees. European Journal of Public Health, 18(2), 156–161.
Moody-Ayers, S. Y., Stewart, A. L., Covinsky, K. E., & Inouye, S. K. (2005). Prevalence and correlates of perceived societal racism in older African-American adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 53(12), 2202–2208. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2005.00501.x .
Nápoles-Springer, A. M., Santoyo, J., Houston, K., Pérez-Stable, E. J., & Stewart, A. L. (2005). Patients’ perceptions of cultural factors affecting the quality of their medical encounters. Health Expectations, 8(1), 4–17. doi: 10.1111/j.1369-7625.2004.00298.x .
National Center for Health Statistics. (2007). Health United States, 2007 with Chartbook Trends in the Health of Americans. Hyattsville, MD.
Noh, S., Kaspar, V., & Wickrama, K. A. (2007). Overt and subtle racial discrimination and mental health: Preliminary findings for Korean immigrants. American Journal of Public Health, 97(7), 1269–1274. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2005.085316 .
Oppedal, B., Røysamb, E., & Heyerdahl, S. (2005). Ethnic group, acculturation, and psychiatric problems in young immigrants. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 46(6), 646–660. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00381.x .
Pamuk, E., Makuk, D., Heck, K., & Reuben, C. (1998). Socioeconomic status and health chartbook. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics.
Pantzer, K., Rajmi, L., Tebe, C., Codina, F., Serra-Sutton, V., Ferrer, M., et al. (2006). Health related quality of life in immigrants and native school aged adolescents in Spain. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 60(8), 694–698. doi: 10.1136/jech.2005.044073 .
Paradies, Y. (2005). Anti-racism and indigenous Australians. Analysis of Social Issues aand Public Policy, 5(1), 1–28.
Paradies, Y. (2006). A systematic review of empirical research on self-reported racism and health. International Journal of Epidemiology, 35(4), 888–901. doi: 10.1093/ije/dyl056 .
Pearlin, L. I., Schieman, S., Fazio, E. M., & Meersman, S. C. (2005). Stress, health, and the life course: Some conceptual perspectives. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 46(June), 205–219.
Peters, R. M. (2006). The relationship of racism, chronic stress emotions, and blood pressure. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 38(3), 234–240. doi: 10.1111/j.1547-5069.2006.00108.x .
Peters, R. M., Benkert, R., Dinardo, E., & Templin, T. (2007). Assessing quality of care for African Americans with hypertension. Journal for Healthcare Quality, 29(3), 10–20.
Pettigrew, T. F. (1964). Profile of the Negro American. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand.
Pieterse, A. L., & Carter, R. T. (2007). An examination of the relationship between general life stress, racism-related stress, and psychological health among black men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(1), 101–109. doi: 10.1037/0022-0167.54.1.101 .
Piette, J. D., Bibbins-Domingo, K., & Schillinger, D. (2006). Health care discrimination, processes of care, and diabetes patients’ health status. Patient Education and Counseling, 60(1), 41–48. doi: 10.1016/j.pec.2004.12.001 .
Pole, N., Best, S., Metsler, T., & Marmar, C. (2005). Why are Hispanics at greater risk for PTSD. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 11(2), 144–161. doi: 10.1037/1099-9809.11.2.144 .
Poyrazli, S., & Lopez, M. D. (2007). An exploratory study of perceived discrimination and homesickness: A comparison of international students and American students. The Journal of Psychology, 141(3), 263–280. doi: 10.3200/JRLP.141.3.263-280 .
Richman, L. S., Bennett, G. G., Pek, J., Siegler, I., & Williams, R. B. J. (2007). Discrimination, dispositions, and cardiovascular responses to stress. Health Psychology, 26(6), 675–683. doi: 10.1037/0278-6133.26.6.675 .
Roberts, C. B., Vines, A. I., Kaufman, J. S., & James, S. A. (2007). Cross-sectional association between perceived discrimination and hypertension in African-American men and women: The Pitt County Study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 167(5), 624–632. EPub.
Romero, A. J., Martinez, D., & Carvajal, S. C. (2007). Bicultural stress and adolescent risk behaviors in a community sample of Latinos and non-Latino European Americans. Ethnicity & Health, 12(5), 443–463. doi: 10.1080/13557850701616854 .
Ryan, A. M., Gee, G. C., & Laflamme, D. F. (2006). The Association between self-reported discrimination, physical health and blood pressure: Findings from African Americans, Black immigrants, and Latino immigrants in New Hampshire. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 17(2), 116–132. doi: 10.1353/hpu.2006.0079 .
Salvatore, J., & Shelton, J. N. (2007). Cognitive costs of exposure to racial prejudice. Psychological Science, 18(9), 810–815. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01984.x .
Schaeffer, N. C., & Presser, S. (2003). The science of asking questions. Annual Review of Sociology, 29, 65–88. doi: 10.1146/annurev.soc.29.110702.110112 .
Schulz, R., & Beach, S. R. (1999). Caregiving as a risk factor for mortality: The caregiver heal effects study. Journal of the American Medical Association, 282(3), 2215–2219. doi: 10.1001/jama.282.23.2215 .
Schulz, A. J., Gravlee, C. C., Williams, D. R., Israel, B. A., Mentz, G., & Rowe, Z. (2006a). Discrimination, symptoms of depression, and self-rated health among african american women in detroit: Results from a longitudinal analysis. American Journal of Public Health, 96(7), 1265–1270. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2005.064543 .
Schulz, A. J., Israel, B. A., Zenk, S. N., Parker, E. A., Lichtenstein, R., Shellman-Weir, S., et al. (2006b). Psychosocial stress and social support as mediators of relationships between income, length of residence and depressive symptoms among African American women on Detroit’s eastside. Social Science & Medicine, 62(2), 510–522. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.06.028 .
Schulz, A. J., Williams, D. R., Israel, B. A., & Lempert, L. B. (2002). Racial and spatial relations as fundamental determinants of health in Detroit. The Milbank Quarterly, 80(4), 677–707. doi: 10.1111/1468-0009.00028 .
Schuman, H., Charlotte, S., Larwrence, B., & Maria, K. (1997). Racial attitudes in America: Trends and interpretations (Revised ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Schwarz, N. (2007). Cognitive aspects of survey methodology. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 21, 277–287. doi: 10.1002/acp.1340 .
Seeman, T. E., Crimmins, E., Huang, M. H., Singer, B., Bucur, A., Gruenewald, T., et al. (2004). Cumulative biological risk and socio-economic differences in mortality: MacArthur studies of successful aging. Social Science & Medicine, 58, 1985–1997. doi: 10.1016/S0277-9536(03)00402-7 .
Sellers, S. L., Bonham, V., Neighbors, H.·W., & Amell, J. W. (2006). Effects of racial discrimination and health behaviors on mental and physical health of middle-class african American Men. Health Education & Behavior, 27.
Sheridan, L. (2006). Islamophobia pre and post September 11th 2001. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21(3), 317–336. doi: 10.1177/0886260505282885 .
Siefert, K., Finlayson, T. L., Williams, D. R., Delva, J., & Ismail, A. I. (2007). Modifiable risk and protective factors for depressive symptoms in low-income African American mothers. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 77(1), 113–123. doi: 10.1037/0002-9432.77.1.113 .
Simons, R. L., Simons, L. G., Burt, C. H., Drummund, H., Stewart, E., Brody, G. H., et al. (2006). Supportive parenting moderates the effect of discrimination upon anger, hostile view of relationships, and violence among African American boys. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 47(4), 373–389.
Smedley, B. D., Stith, A. Y., & Nelson, A. R. (2003). Unequal treatment: Confronting racial and ethnic disparities in health care. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Smokowski, P. R., & Bacallao, M. (2007). Acculturation, internalizing mental health symptoms, and self-esteem: Cultural experiences of Latino adolescents in North Carolina. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 37(3), 273–292. doi: 10.1007/s10578-006-0035-4 .
Sohler, N., Li, X., & C, C. (2007). Perceived discrimination among severly disadvantaged people with HIV infection. Public Health Reports, 122(3), 347–355.
Stam, R. (2007). PTSD and stress sensitization: A tale of brain and body. Part 1: Human studies. Neuroscience, 31, 530–557.
Steele, C. M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. The American Psychologist, 52(6), 613–629. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.52.6.613 .
Steffen, P. R., & Bowden, M. (2006). Sleep disturbance mediates the relationship between perceived racism and depressive symptoms. Ethnicity & Disease, 16(1), 16–21.
Stetler, C., Chen, E., & Miller, G. E. (2006). Written disclosure of experiences with racial discrimination and antibody response to an influenza vaccine. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 13(1), 60–68. doi: 10.1207/s15327558ijbm1301_8 .
Stevens, G. W., Vollebergh, W. A., Pels, T. V., & Crinjnen, A. A. (2005a). Predicting externalizing problems in Moroccan immigrant adolescents in the Netherlands. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 40(7), 571–579. doi: 10.1007/s00127-005-0926-x .
Stevens, G. W., Vollebergh, W. A., Pels, T. V., & Crinjnen, A. A. (2005b). Predicting internalizing problems in Moroccan immigrant adolescents in the Netherlands. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 40, 1003–10011. doi: 10.1007/s00127-005-0988-9 .
Sujoldzic, A., Peternel, L., Kulenovic, T., & Terzic, R. (2006). Social determinants of health—a comparative study of Bosnian adolescents in different cultural contexts. Collegium Antropologicum, 30(4), 703–711.
Tabibnia, G., Satpute, A. B., & Lieberman, M. D. (2008). The sunny side of fairness: Preference for fairness activates reward circuitry (and disregarding unfairness activates self-control circuitry). Psychological Science, 19, 339–347. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02091.x .
Taylor, J., Henderson, D., & Jackson, B. B. (1991). A holistic model for understanding and predicting depression in African American women. Journal of Community Psychology, 19, 306–320. doi :10.1002/1520-6629(199110)19:4<306::AID-JCOP2290190403>3.0.CO;2-Z.
Taylor, J., & Jackson, B. (1990). Factors affecting alcohol consumption in black women, Part II. The International Journal of the Addictions, 25(12), 1415–1427.
Taylor, J., & Jackson, B. B. (1991). Evaluation of a holistic model of mental health symptoms in African American women. The Journal of Black Psychology, 18, 19–45. doi: 10.1177/00957984910181003 .
Taylor, T. R., Williams, C. D., Makambi, K. H., Mouton, C., Harrell, J. P., Cozier, Y., et al. (2007). Racial discrimination and breast cancer incidence in US Black women: The Black Women’s Health Study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 166(1), 46–54. doi: 10.1093/aje/kwm056 .
Terrell, F., Miller, A. R., Foster, K., & Watkins, C. E., Jr. (2006). Racial discrimination-induced anger and alcohol use among black adolescents. Adolescence, 41(163), 485–492.
Thomas, K. S., Bardwell, W. A., Ancoli-Israel, S., & Dimsdale, J. E. (2006). The toll of ethnic discrimination on sleep architecture and fatigue. Health Psychology, 25(5), 635–642. doi: 10.1037/0278-6133.25.5.635 .
Tourangeau, R., & Yan, T. (2007). Sensitive questions in surveys. Psychological Bulletin, 133(5), 859–883. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.133.5.859 .
Trivedi, A. N., & Ayanian, J. Z. (2006). Perceived discrimination and use of preventive health services. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 21(6), 553–558. doi: 10.1111/j.1525-1497.2006.00413.x .
Tull, E. S., Cort, M. A., Gwebu, E. T., & Gwebu, K. (2007). Internalized racism is associated with elevated fasting glucose in a sample of adult women but not men in Zimbabwe. Ethnicity & Disease, 17(4), 731–735.
Tull, E. S., Wickramasuriya, T., Taylor, J., Smith-Burns, V., Brown, M., Champaigne, G., et al. (1999). Relationship of internalized racism to abdominal obesity and blood pressure in Afro-Caribbean women. Journal of the National Medical Association, 91, 447–452.
Turner, R. J., Wheaton, B., & Lloyd, D. A. (1995). The epidemiology of social stress. American Sociological Review, 60(1), 104–125. doi: 10.2307/2096348 .
Umaña-Taylor, A. J., & Updegraff, K. A. (2007). Latino adolescents’ mental health: Exploring the interrelations among discrimination, ethnic identity, cultural orientation, self-esteem, and depressive symptoms. Journal of Adolescence, 30(4), 549–567. doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2006.08.002 .
Utsey, S. O., & Hook, J. N. (2007). Heart rate variability as a physiological moderator of the relationship between race-related stress and psychological distress in African Americans. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 13(3), 250–253. doi: 10.1037/1099-9809.13.3.250 .
Utsey, S. O., Lanier, Y., Williams, O., Bolden, M., & Lee, A. (2006). Moderator effects of cognitive ability and social support on the relation between race-related stress and quality of life in a community sample of black Americans. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 12(2), 334–346. doi: 10.1037/1099-9809.12.2.334 .
Utsey, S. O., & Ponterotto, J. G. (1996). Development and validation of the index of race-related stress (IRRS). Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43, 490–501. doi: 10.1037/0022-0167.43.4.490 .
Van Houtven, C. H., Voils, C. I., Oddone, E. Z., Weinfurt, K. P., Friedman, J. Y., Schulman, K. A., et al. (2005). Perceived discrimination and reported delay of pharmacy prescriptions and medical tests. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 20(7), 578–583. doi: 10.1007/s11606-005-0104-6 .
van Ryn, M. (2002). Research on the provider contribution to race/ethnicity disparities in medical care. Medical Care, 40(1), I140–I151. doi: 10.1097/00005650-200201001-00015 .
Veling, W., Selten, J. P., Susser, E., Laan, W., Mackenbach, J. P., & Hoek, H. W. (2007). Discrimination and the incidence of psychotic disorders among ethnic minorities in The Netherlands. International Journal of Epidemiology, 36(4), 761–768. doi: 10.1093/ije/dym085 .
Vines, A. I., Baird, D. D., McNeilly, M., Hertz-Piccioto, I., Light, K. C., & Stevens, J. (2006). Social correlates of the chronic stress of perceived racism among black women. Ethnicity & Disease, 16(1), 101–107.
Vines, A. I., Baird, D. D., Stevens, J., Hertz-Picciotto, I., Light, K. C., & McNeilly, M. (2007). Associations of abdominal fat with perceived racism and passive emotional responses to racism in African American women. American Journal of Public Health, 97(3), 526–530. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2005.080663 .
Vos, M. S., & de Haes, J. C. J. M. (2007). Denial in cancer patients, an explorative review. Psycho-Oncology, 16, 12–25. doi: 10.1002/pon.1051 .
Wadsworth, E., Dillon, K., Shaw, C., Bhui, K., Stansfeld, S., & Smith, A. (2007). Racial discrimination ethnicity and work stress. Occupational Medicine (Oxford, England), 57(1), 18–24. doi: 10.1093/occmed/kql088 .
Wagner, J., & Abbott, G. (2007). Depression and depression care in diabetes: Relationship to perceived discrimination in African Americans. Diabetes Care, 30(2), 364–366. doi: 10.2337/dc06-1756 .
Waltermaurer, E., Watson, C. A., & McNutt, L. A. (2006). Black women’s health: The effect of perceived racism and intimate partner violence. Violence Against Women, 12(12), 1214–1222. doi: 10.1177/1077801206293545 .
Wamala, S., Boström, G., & Nyqvist, K. (2007b). Perceived discrimination and psychological distress in Sweden. British Journal of Psychiatry, 190, 75–76.
Wamala, S., Merlo, J., Boström, G., & Hogstedt, C. (2007a). Perceived discrimination, socioeconomic disadvantage and refraining from seeking medical treatment in Sweden. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 61(5), 409–415. doi: 10.1136/jech.2006.049999 .
Whitbeck, L. B., Adams, G. W., Hoyt, D. R., & Chen, X. (2004). Conceptualizing and measuring historical trauma among American Indian people. Journal of Community Psychology, 33(3/4), 119–130. doi: 10.1023/B:AJCP.0000027000.77357.31 .
Williams, D. R. (1997). Race and health: Basic questions, emerging directions. Annals of Epidemiology, 7(5), 322–333. doi: 10.1016/S1047-2797(97)00051-3 .
Williams, D. R. (2004). Racism and Health. In K. E. Whitfield (Ed.), Closing the Gap: Improving the Health of Minority Elders in the New Millenium (pp. 69–80). Washington, D.C: Gerontological Society of America.
Williams, D. R. (2005). The health of U.S. racial and ethnic populations. Journals of Gerontology: Series B 60B (Special Issue II):53–62.
Williams, D. R., & Collins, C. (1995). U.S. socioeconomic and racial differences in health: Patterns and explanations. Annual Review of Sociology, 21, 349–386. doi: 10.1146/annurev.so.21.080195.002025 .
Williams, D. R., & Collins, C. A. (2001). Racial residential segregation: A fundamental cause of racial disparities in health. Public Health Reports, 116, 404–415.
Williams D, Gonzalez H, Williams S, Mohammed S, Moomal H, Stein D. (2008) Perceived discrimination, race, and health in South Africa. Social Science & Medicine, 67, 441–452.
Williams, D. R., & Jackson, P. B. (2005). Social sources of racial disparities in health. Health Affairs, 24(2), 325–334. doi: 10.1377/hlthaff.24.2.325 .
Williams, D. R., & Neighbors, H. W. (2001). Racism, discrimination and hypertension: Evidence and needed research. Ethnicity & Disease, 11, 800–816.
Williams, D. R., Neighbors, H. W., & Jackson, J. S. (2003). Racial/ethnic discrimination and health: Findings from community studies. American Journal of Public Health, 93(2), 200–208.
Williams, D. R., Spencer, M., & Jackson, J. S. (1999). Race, stress, and physical health: The role of group identity. In R. J. Contrada & R. D. Ashmore (Eds.), Self, Social Identity, and Physical Health: Interdisciplinary Explorations (pp. 71–100). New York: Oxford University Press.
Williams, D. R., Yu, Y., Jackson, J., & Anderson, N. (1997). Racial differences in physical and mental health: Socioeconomic status, stress, and discrimination. Journal of Health Psychology, 2(3), 335–351. doi: 10.1177/135910539700200305 .
Wise, L. A., Palmer, J. R., Cozier, Y. C., Hunt, M. O., Stewart, E. A., & Rosenberg, L. (2007). Perceived racial discrimination and risk of uterine leiomyomata. Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass), 18(6), 747–757.
Wyatt, S. B., Williams, D. R., Calvin, R., Henderson, F., Walker, E., & Winters, K. (2003). Racism and cardiovascular disease in African Americans: Evidence and implications for the Jackson Heart Study. The American Journal of the Medical Sciences, 325(6), 315–331. doi: 10.1097/00000441-200306000-00003 .
Yehuda, R., Bryant, R., Marmar, C., & Zohar, J. (2005). Pathological Responses to Terrorism. Neuropsychopharmacology, 30, 1793–1805. doi: 10.1038/sj.npp.1300816 .
Yoder, K. A., Whitbeck, L. B., Hoyt, D. R., & LaFromboise, T. (2006). Suicidal ideation among American Indian youths. Archives of Suicide Research, 10(2), 177–190. doi: 10.1080/13811110600558240 .
Young, M., Stuber, J., Ahern, J., & Galea, S. (2005). Interpersonal discrimination and the health of illicit drug users. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 31(3), 371–391. doi: 10.1081/ADA-200056772 .