Diagnosis and management of hyperthyroidism from prenatal life to adolescence

Abraham-Nordling, 2011, Incidence of hyperthyroidism in Sweden, Eur J Endocrinol, 165, 899, 10.1530/EJE-11-0548 Wong, 2001, Increasing incidence of childhood Graves' disease in Hong Kong: a follow-up study, Clin Endocrinol (Oxf), 54, 547, 10.1046/j.1365-2265.2001.01252.x Forssberg, 2004, Increasing incidence of childhood thyrotoxicosis in a population-based area of central Sweden, Acta Paediatr, 93, 25, 10.1111/j.1651-2227.2004.tb00669.x Williamson, 2010, Incidence of thyrotoxicosis in childhood: a national population based study in the UK and Ireland, Clin Endocrinol (Oxf), 72, 358, 10.1111/j.1365-2265.2009.03717.x Havgaard Kjaer, 2015, Increasing incidence of juvenile thyrotoxicosis in Denmark: a nationwide study, 1998-2012, Horm Res Paediatr, 84, 102, 10.1159/000430985 Yang, 2007, Chronic iodine excess does not increase the incidence of hyperthyroidism: a prospective community-based epidemiological survey in China, Eur J Endocrinol, 156, 403, 10.1530/EJE-06-0651 Feuillan, 1990, Thyroid abnormalities in the McCune-Albright syndrome: ultrasonography and hormonal studies, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 71, 1596, 10.1210/jcem-71-6-1596 Kopp, 1995, Brief report: congenital hyperthyroidism caused by a mutation in the thyrotropin-receptor gene, N Engl J Med, 332, 150, 10.1056/NEJM199501193320304 de Roux, 1996, A neomutation of the thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor in a severe neonatal hyperthyroidism, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 81, 2023 Gelwane, 2009, Pituitary-thyroid feedback in a patient with a sporadic activating thyrotropin (TSH) receptor mutation: implication that thyroid-secreted factors other than thyroid hormones contribute to serum TSH levels, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 94, 2787, 10.1210/jc.2008-2524 Grob, 2014, Autonomous adenomas caused by somatic mutations of the thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor in children, Horm Res Paediatr, 81, 73, 10.1159/000357143 Weetman, 2000, Graves' disease, N Engl J Med, 343, 1236, 10.1056/NEJM200010263431707 Cooper, 2003, Hyperthyroidism, Lancet, 362, 459, 10.1016/S0140-6736(03)14073-1 Brix, 1998, What is the evidence of genetic factors in the etiology of Graves' disease? A brief review, Thyroid, 8, 727, 10.1089/thy.1998.8.727 Brix, 2001, Evidence for a major role of heredity in Graves' disease: a population-based study of two Danish twin cohorts, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 86, 930 Brand, 2010, Genetics of thyroid autoimmunity and the role of the TSHR, Mol Cell Endocrinol, 322, 135, 10.1016/j.mce.2010.01.013 Saitoh, 2006, Regulation of Graves' hyperthyroidism with naturally occurring CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells in a mouse model, Endocrinology, 147, 2417, 10.1210/en.2005-1024 Michels, 2010, Immunologic endocrine disorders, J Allergy Clin Immunol, 125, S226, 10.1016/j.jaci.2009.09.053 De Luca, 2010, Peculiarities of Graves' disease in children and adolescents with Down's syndrome, Eur J Endocrinol, 162, 591, 10.1530/EJE-09-0751 Wasniewska, 2010, Graves' disease prevalence in a young population with Turner syndrome, J Endocrinol Invest, 33, 69, 10.1007/BF03346552 Goldstein, 2008, Pediatric thyroid-associated orbitopathy: the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia experience and literature review, Thyroid, 18, 997, 10.1089/thy.2008.0014 Gogakos, 2010, Pediatric aspects in Graves' orbitopathy, Pediatr Endocrinol Rev, 7, 234 Birrell, 2004, Juvenile thyrotoxicosis; can we do better?, Arch Dis Child, 89, 745, 10.1136/adc.2003.035980 Leblicq, 2013, Rising serum thyroxine levels and chorea in graves' disease, Pediatrics, 131, e616, 10.1542/peds.2012-0686 Lucidarme, 2000, Reduced bone mineral density at diagnosis and bone mineral recovery during treatment in children with Graves' disease, J Pediatr, 137, 56, 10.1067/mpd.2000.106219 Harvengt, 2015, Triiodothyronine-predominant Graves' disease in childhood: detection and therapeutic implications, Eur J Endocrinol, 172, 715, 10.1530/EJE-14-0959 Kaguelidou, 2008, Predictors of autoimmune hyperthyroidism relapse in children after discontinuation of antithyroid drug treatment, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 93, 3817, 10.1210/jc.2008-0842 Diana, 2014, Clinical relevance of thyroid-stimulating autoantibodies in pediatric graves' disease-a multicenter study, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 99, 1648, 10.1210/jc.2013-4026 Glaser, 1997, Predictors of early remission of hyperthyroidism in children, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 82, 1719 Ross, 2016, 2016 American thyroid association guidelines for diagnosis and management of hyperthyroidism and other causes of thyrotoxicosis, Thyroid, 26, 1343, 10.1089/thy.2016.0229 Kaguelidou, 2009, Graves' disease in childhood: advances in management with antithyroid drug therapy, Horm Res, 71, 310 Bahn, 2011, Hyperthyroidism and other causes of thyrotoxicosis: management guidelines of the American thyroid association and American association of clinical endocrinologists, Endocr Pract, 17, 456, 10.4158/EP.17.3.456 Rivkees, 2010, Pediatric Graves' disease: controversies in management, Horm Res Paediatr, 74, 305, 10.1159/000320028 Leger, 2017, MANAGEMENT OF ENDOCRINE DISEASE: arguments for the prolonged use of antithyroid drugs in children with Graves' disease, Eur J Endocrinol, 177, R59, 10.1530/EJE-16-0938 Cooper, 2003, Antithyroid drugs in the management of patients with Graves' disease: an evidence-based approach to therapeutic controversies, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 88, 3474, 10.1210/jc.2003-030185 Cooper, 2005, Antithyroid drugs, N Engl J Med, 352, 905, 10.1056/NEJMra042972 Ohye, 2014, Antithyroid drug treatment for graves' disease in children: a long-term retrospective study at a single institution, Thyroid, 24, 200, 10.1089/thy.2012.0612 Rivkees, 2010, Adverse events associated with methimazole therapy of graves' disease in children, Int J Pediatr Endocrinol, 2010, 176970, 10.1186/1687-9856-2010-176970 Balavoine, 2015, Antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-positive small-vessel vasculitis associated with antithyroid drug therapy: how significant is the clinical problem?, Thyroid, 25, 1273, 10.1089/thy.2014.0603 Harper, 2004, Propylthiouracil and carbimazole associated-antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCA) in patients with Graves' disease, Clin Endocrinol (Oxf), 60, 671, 10.1111/j.1365-2265.2004.02029.x Yasuda, 2017, Relationship between dose of antithyroid drugs and adverse events in pediatric patients with Graves' disease, Clin Pediatr Endocrinol, 26, 1, 10.1297/cpe.26.1 Hallberg, 2016, Genetic variants associated with antithyroid drug-induced agranulocytosis: a genome-wide association study in a European population, Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol, 4, 507, 10.1016/S2213-8587(16)00113-3 Abraham, 2010, Antithyroid drug regimen for treating Graves' hyperthyroidism, Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 10.1002/14651858.CD003420.pub4 Vaidya, 2014, Block & replace regime versus titration regime of antithyroid drugs for the treatment of Graves' disease: a retrospective observational study, Clin Endocrinol (Oxf), 81, 610, 10.1111/cen.12478 van Veenendaal, 2011, Treatment of pediatric Graves' disease is associated with excessive weight gain, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 96, 3257, 10.1210/jc.2011-1601 Chen, 1986, Discordant hypothyroxinemia and hypertriiodothyroninemia in treated patients with hyperthyroid Graves' disease, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 63, 102, 10.1210/jcem-63-1-102 Matsumoto, 2013, Genes that characterize T3-predominant Graves' thyroid tissues, Eur J Endocrinol, 168, 137, 10.1530/EJE-12-0507 Cury, 2013, Clinical experience with radioactive iodine in the treatment of childhood and adolescent Graves' disease, Endocr Connect, 2, 32, 10.1530/EC-12-0049 Read, 2004, 36-year retrospective analysis of the efficacy and safety of radioactive iodine in treating young Graves' patients, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 89, 4229, 10.1210/jc.2003-031223 Metso, 2007, Increased cardiovascular and cancer mortality after radioiodine treatment for hyperthyroidism, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 92, 2190, 10.1210/jc.2006-2321 Ryodi, 2015, Cancer incidence and mortality in patients treated either with RAI or thyroidectomy for hyperthyroidism, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 100, 3710, 10.1210/jc.2015-1874 Sosa, 2008, Clinical and economic outcomes of thyroid and parathyroid surgery in children, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 93, 3058, 10.1210/jc.2008-0660 Lee, 2007, The optimal treatment for pediatric Graves' disease is surgery, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 92, 801, 10.1210/jc.2006-1238 Hamburger, 1985, Management of hyperthyroidism in children and adolescents, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 60, 1019, 10.1210/jcem-60-5-1019 Zimmerman, 1990, Hyperthyroidism in children and adolescents, Pediatr Clin North Am, 37, 1273, 10.1016/S0031-3955(16)37011-0 Lazar, 2000, Thyrotoxicosis in prepubertal children compared with pubertal and postpubertal patients, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 85, 3678, 10.1210/jcem.85.10.6922 Weetman, 2006, Graves' hyperthyroidism: how long should antithyroid drug therapy be continued to achieve remission?, Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab, 2, 2, 10.1038/ncpendmet0068 Lippe, 1987, Hyperthyroidism in children treated with long term medical therapy: twenty-five percent remission every two years, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 64, 1241, 10.1210/jcem-64-6-1241 Shulman, 1997, Autoimmune hyperthyroidism in prepubertal children and adolescents: comparison of clinical and biochemical features at diagnosis and responses to medical therapy, Thyroid, 7, 755, 10.1089/thy.1997.7.755 Mussa, 1999, Factors at onset predictive of lasting remission in pediatric patients with Graves' disease followed for at least three years, J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab, 12, 537, 10.1515/JPEM.1999.12.4.537 Glaser, 2008, Predicting the likelihood of remission in children with Graves' disease: a prospective, multicenter study, Pediatrics, 121, e481, 10.1542/peds.2007-1535 Gastaldi, 2014, Graves disease in children: thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor antibodies as remission markers, J Pediatr, 164, 1189, 10.1016/j.jpeds.2013.12.047 Leger, 2012, Positive impact of long-term antithyroid drug treatment on the outcome of children with Graves' disease: national long-term cohort study, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 97, 110, 10.1210/jc.2011-1944 Laurberg, 2006, Remission of Graves' disease during anti-thyroid drug therapy. Time to reconsider the mechanism?, Eur J Endocrinol, 155, 783, 10.1530/eje.1.02295 Bahn, 2012, Autoimmunity and graves' disease, Clin Pharmacol Ther, 91, 577, 10.1038/clpt.2012.10 Allahabadia, 2000, Age and gender predict the outcome of treatment for Graves' hyperthyroidism, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 85, 1038 Nedrebo, 2002, Predictors of outcome and comparison of different drug regimens for the prevention of relapse in patients with Graves' disease, Eur J Endocrinol, 147, 583, 10.1530/eje.0.1470583 Kim, 2003, Epitope heterogeneity of thyroid-stimulating antibodies predicts long-term outcome in Graves' patients treated with antithyroid drugs, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 88, 117, 10.1210/jc.2002-020389 Glinoer, 1997, The regulation of thyroid function in pregnancy: pathways of endocrine adaptation from physiology to pathology, Endocr Rev, 18, 404, 10.1210/edrv.18.3.0300 Polak, 2004, Fetal and neonatal thyroid function in relation to maternal Graves' disease, Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab, 18, 289, 10.1016/j.beem.2004.03.009 Cooper, 2013, Hyperthyroidism in pregnancy, Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol, 1, 238, 10.1016/S2213-8587(13)70086-X Zimmerman, 1999, Fetal and neonatal hyperthyroidism, Thyroid, 9, 727, 10.1089/thy.1999.9.727 Daneman, 1980, Neonatal thyrotoxicosis: intellectual impairment and craniosynostosis in later years, J Pediatr, 97, 257, 10.1016/S0022-3476(80)80487-2 De Groot, 2012, Management of thyroid dysfunction during pregnancy and postpartum: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 97, 2543, 10.1210/jc.2011-2803 Luton, 2005, Management of Graves' disease during pregnancy: the key role of fetal thyroid gland monitoring, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 90, 6093, 10.1210/jc.2004-2555 Ranzini, 2001, Ultrasonography of the fetal thyroid: nomograms based on biparietal diameter and gestational age, J Ultrasound Med, 20, 613, 10.7863/jum.2001.20.6.613 Besancon, 2014, Management of neonates born to women with Graves' disease: a cohort study, Eur J Endocrinol, 170, 855, 10.1530/EJE-13-0994 Levy-Shraga, 2014, Follow-up of newborns of mothers with Graves' disease, Thyroid, 24, 1032, 10.1089/thy.2013.0489 van der Kaay, 2016, Management of neonates born to mothers with Graves' disease, Pediatrics, 137, 10.1542/peds.2015-1878 Abeillon-du Payrat, 2014, Predictive value of maternal second-generation thyroid-binding inhibitory immunoglobulin assay for neonatal autoimmune hyperthyroidism, Eur J Endocrinol, 171, 451, 10.1530/EJE-14-0254 Banige, 2017, Study of the factors leading to fetal and neonatal dysthyroidism in children of patients with graves disease, J Endocr Soc, 1, 751, 10.1210/js.2017-00189 Andersen, 2016, Antithyroid drug side effects in the population and in pregnancy, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 101, 1606, 10.1210/jc.2015-4274 Andersen, 2013, Birth defects after early pregnancy use of antithyroid drugs: a Danish nationwide study, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 98, 4373, 10.1210/jc.2013-2831 Laurberg, 2014, Therapy of endocrine disease: antithyroid drug use in early pregnancy and birth defects: time windows of relative safety and high risk?, Eur J Endocrinol, 171, R13, 10.1530/EJE-14-0135 Leger, 2017, Management of fetal and neonatal graves' disease, Horm Res Paediatr, 87, 1, 10.1159/000453065 Momotani, 2000, Thyroid function in wholly breast-feeding infants whose mothers take high doses of propylthiouracil, Clin Endocrinol (Oxf), 53, 177, 10.1046/j.1365-2265.2000.01078.x Kempers, 2003, Central congenital hypothyroidism due to gestational hyperthyroidism: detection where prevention failed, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 88, 5851, 10.1210/jc.2003-030665