Diagnosis, Prevention, and Treatment of Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infection in Adults: 2009 International Clinical Practice Guidelines from the Infectious Diseases Society of America

Clinical Infectious Diseases - Tập 50 Số 5 - Trang 625-663 - 2010
Thomas M. Hooton1, Suzanne Bradley2, Diana D. Cardenas3, Richard Colgan4, Suzanne E. Geerlings5, James Rice6, Sanjay Saint2, Anthony J. Schaeffer7, Paul A. Tambayh8, Péter Tenke9, Lindsay E. Nicolle10,11
1 Department of Medicine, Miami, Florida
2 Department of Internal Medicine, Ann Arbor Veterans Affairs Medical Center and the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
3Department Of Rehabilitation Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, Florida
4 Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore
5 Department of Infectious Diseases, Tropical Medicine, and AIDS, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
6 Department of Medicine, University of Texas, Galveston
7Department of Urology, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois
8Department of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
9Department of Urology, Jahn Ference Del-Pesti Korhaz, Budapest, Hungary
10Department of Internal Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada
11Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada

Tóm tắt

AbstractGuidelines for the diagnosis, prevention, and management of persons with catheter-associated urinary tract infection (CA-UTI), both symptomatic and asymptomatic, were prepared by an Expert Panel of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. The evidence-based guidelines encompass diagnostic criteria, strategies to reduce the risk of CA-UTIs, strategies that have not been found to reduce the incidence of urinary infections, and management strategies for patients with catheter-associated asymptomatic bacteriuria or symptomatic urinary tract infection. These guidelines are intended for use by physicians in all medical specialties who perform direct patient care, with an emphasis on the care of patients in hospitals and long-term care facilities.

Từ khóa


Tài liệu tham khảo

Pappas, 2009, Clinical practice guidelines for the management of candidiasis: 2009 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America, Clin Infect Dis, 48, 503, 10.1086/596757

2004, National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) System Report, data summary from January 1992 through June 2004, issued October 2004, Am J Infect Control, 32, 470, 10.1016/j.ajic.2004.10.001

Haley, 1981, Nosocomial infections in U.S. hospitals, 1975–1976: estimated frequency by selected characteristics of patients, Am J Med, 70, 947, 10.1016/0002-9343(81)90561-1

Platt, 1982, Mortality associated with nosocomial urinary-tract infection, N Engl J Med, 307, 637, 10.1056/NEJM198209093071101

Nicolle, 1996, Infections and antibiotic resistance in nursing homes, Clin Microbiol Rev, 9, 1, 10.1128/CMR.9.1.1

Smith, 2008, SHEA/APIC guideline: infection prevention and control in the long-term care facility, July 2008, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 29, 785, 10.1086/592416

Saint, 2008, Preventing hospital-acquired urinary tract infection in the United States: a national study, Clin Infect Dis, 46, 243, 10.1086/524662

Wald, 2007, Nonpayment for harms resulting from medical care: catheter-associated urinary tract infections, JAMA, 298, 2782, 10.1001/jama.298.23.2782

Field, 1990, Institute of Medicine Committee to Advise the Public Health Service on Clinical Practice Guidelines, Clinical practice guidelines: directions for a new program, 52, 10.17226/1626

The periodic health examination, 1979, Canadian Task Force on the Periodic Health Examination, Can Med Assoc J, 121, 1193

Tambyah, 2004, Catheter-associated urinary tract infections: diagnosis and prophylaxis, Int J Antimicrob Agents, 24, 44, 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2004.02.008

Haley, 1985, The nationwide nosocomial infection rate: a new need for vital statistics, Am J Epidemiol, 121, 159, 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a113988

Warren, 1991, The catheter and urinary tract infection, Med Clin North Am, 75, 481, 10.1016/S0025-7125(16)30465-5

Garibaldi, 1974, Factors predisposing to bacteriuria during indwelling urethral catheterization, N Engl J Med, 291, 215, 10.1056/NEJM197408012910501

Weinstein, 1999, A decade of prevalence surveys in a tertiary-care center: trends in nosocomial infection rates, device utilization, and patient acuity, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 20, 543, 10.1086/501675

Warren, 1997, Catheter-associated urinary tract infections, Infect Dis Clin North Am, 11, 609, 10.1016/S0891-5520(05)70376-7

Warren, 1989, The prevalence of urethral catheterization in Maryland nursing homes, Arch Intern Med, 149, 1535, 10.1001/archinte.1989.00390070073009

Warren, 1994, Catheter-associated bacteriuria in long-term care facilities, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 15, 557, 10.2307/30148409

Garibaldi, 1981, Infections among patients in nursing homes: policies, prevalence, problems, N Engl J Med, 305, 731, 10.1056/NEJM198109243051304

Warren, 1982, A prospective microbiologic study of bacteriuria in patients with chronic indwelling urethral catheters, J Infect Dis, 146, 719, 10.1093/infdis/146.6.719

Terpenning, 1989, Intermittent urethral catheterization in the elderly, J Am Geriatr Soc, 37, 411, 10.1111/j.1532-5415.1989.tb02636.x

2006, Bladder management for adults with spinal cord injury: a clinical practice guideline for health-care providers, J Spinal Cord Med, 29, 527

Jamil, 2001, Towards a catheter free status in neurogenic bladder dysfunction: a review of bladder management options in spinal cord injury (SCI), Spinal Cord, 39, 355, 10.1038/sj.sc.3101132

Wyndaele, 2002, Complications of intermittent catheterization: their prevention and treatment, Spinal Cord, 40, 536, 10.1038/sj.sc.3101348

Esclarin De Ruz, 2000, Epidemiology and risk factors for urinary tract infection in patients with spinal cord injury, J Urol, 164, 1285, 10.1016/S0022-5347(05)67157-1

Kunin, 1966, Prevention of catheter-induced urinary-tract infections by sterile closed drainage, N Engl J Med, 274, 1155, 10.1056/NEJM196605262742101

Hartstein, 1981, Nosocomial urinary tract infection: a prospective evaluation of 108 catheterized patients, Infect Control, 2, 380, 10.1017/S0195941700055533

Warren, 1987, Fever, bacteremia, and death as complications of bacteriuria in women with long-term urethral catheters, J Infect Dis, 155, 1151, 10.1093/infdis/155.6.1151

Classen, 1991, Prevention of catheter-associated bacteriuria: clinical trial of methods to block three known pathways of infection, Am J Infect Control, 19, 136, 10.1016/0196-6553(91)90019-9

Saint, 1999, Preventing catheter-related bacteriuria: should we? Can we? How?, Arch Intern Med, 159, 800, 10.1001/archinte.159.8.800

Maki, 2001, Engineering out the risk for infection with urinary catheters, Emerg Infect Dis, 7, 342, 10.3201/eid0702.010240

Saint, 2003, Biofilms and catheter-associated urinary tract infections, Infect Dis Clin North Am, 17, 411, 10.1016/S0891-5520(03)00011-4

Huth, 1992, Randomized trial of meatal care with silver sulfadiazine cream for the prevention of catheter-associated bacteriuria, J Infect Dis, 165, 14, 10.1093/infdis/165.1.14

Garibaldi, 1980, Meatal colonization and catheter-associated bacteriuria, N Engl J Med, 303, 316, 10.1056/NEJM198008073030605

Platt, 1986, Risk factors for nosocomial urinary tract infection, Am J Epidemiol, 124, 977, 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a114487

Loeb, 2008, Stop orders to reduce inappropriate urinary catheterization in hospitalized patients: a randomized, controlled trial, J Gen Intern Med, 23, 816, 10.1007/s11606-008-0620-2

Bakke, 1997, Physical predictors of infection in patients treated with clean intermittent catheterization: a prospective 7-year study, Br J Urol, 79, 85, 10.1046/j.1464-410X.1997.30018.x

Saint, 2000, Clinical and economic consequences of nosocomial catheter-related bacteriuria, Am J Infect Control, 28, 68, 10.1016/S0196-6553(00)90015-4

Garibaldi, 1982, An evaluation of daily bacteriologic monitoring to identify preventable episodes of catheter-associated urinary tract infection, Infect Control, 3, 466, 10.1017/S0195941700056599

Tambyah, 2000, Catheter-associated urinary tract infection is rarely symptomatic: a prospective study of 1,497 catheterized patients, Arch Intern Med, 160, 678

Golob, 2008, Fever and leukocytosis in critically ill trauma patients: it's not the urine, Surg Infect (Larchmt), 9, 49, 10.1089/sur.2007.023

Bryan, 1984, Hospital-acquired bacteremic urinary tract infection: epidemiology and outcome, J Urol, 132, 494, 10.1016/S0022-5347(17)49707-2

Kreger, 1980, Gram-negative bacteremia. III. Reassessment of etiology, epidemiology and ecology in 612 patients, Am J Med, 68, 332, 10.1016/0002-9343(80)90101-1

Krieger, 1983, Urinary tract etiology of bloodstream infections in hospitalized patients, J Infect Dis, 148, 57, 10.1093/infdis/148.1.57

Edgeworth, 1999, A 25-year study of nosocomial bacteremia in an adult intensive care unit, Crit Care Med, 27, 1421, 10.1097/00003246-199908000-00002

Platt, 1983, Reduction of mortality associated with nosocomial urinary tract infection, Lancet, 1, 893, 10.1016/S0140-6736(83)91327-2

Stamm, 1991, Catheter-associated urinary tract infections: epidemiology, pathogenesis, and prevention, Am J Med, 91, 65, 10.1016/0002-9343(91)90345-X

Laupland, 2005, Intensive care unit-acquired urinary tract infections in a regional critical care system, Crit Care, 9, 60, 10.1186/cc3023

Gross, 1983, Nosocomial infections and hospital deaths: a case-control study, Am J Med, 75, 658, 10.1016/0002-9343(83)90453-9

Bagshaw, 2006, Epidemiology of intensive care unit-acquired urinary tract infections, Curr Opin Infect Dis, 19, 67, 10.1097/01.qco.0000200292.37909.e0

Clec'h, 2007, Does catheter-associated urinary tract infection increase mortality in critically ill patients?, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 28, 1367, 10.1086/523279

Kunin, 1987, Morbidity and mortality associated with indwelling urinary catheters in elderly patients in a nursing home—confounding due to the presence of associated diseases, J Am Geriatr Soc, 35, 1001, 10.1111/j.1532-5415.1987.tb04003.x

Givens, 1980, Catheter-associated urinary tract infections in surgical patients: a controlled study on the excess morbidity and costs, J Urol, 124, 646, 10.1016/S0022-5347(17)55596-2

Green, 1982, Estimating the effects of nosocomial infections on the length of hospitalization, J Infect Dis, 145, 667, 10.1093/infdis/145.2.667

Haley, 1981, Extra charges and prolongation of stay attributable to nosocomial infections: a prospective interhospital comparison, Am J Med, 70, 51, 10.1016/0002-9343(81)90411-3

Tambyah, 2002, The direct costs of nosocomial catheter-associated urinary tract infection in the era of managed care, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 23, 27, 10.1086/501964

Karchmer, 2000, A randomized crossover study of silver-coated urinary catheters in hospitalized patients, Arch Intern Med, 160, 3294, 10.1001/archinte.160.21.3294

Schaberg, 1980, Nosocomial bacteriuria: a prospective study of case clustering and antimicrobial resistance, Ann Intern Med, 93, 420, 10.7326/0003-4819-93-3-420

Schaberg, 1976, An outbreak of nosocomial infection due to multiply resistant Serratia marcescen: evidence of interhospital spread, J Infect Dis, 134, 181, 10.1093/infdis/134.2.181

Jarlier, 1996, Antibiotic susceptibility in aerobic gram-negative bacilli isolated in intensive care units in 39 French teaching hospitals (ICU study), Intensive Care Med, 22, 1057, 10.1007/BF01699228

Bjork, 1984, Urinary tract infections with antibiotic resistant organisms in catheterized nursing home patients, Infect Control, 5, 173, 10.1017/S0195941700059178

Krieger, 1983, Nosocomial urinary tract infections cause wound infections postoperatively in surgical patients, Surg Gynecol Obstet, 156, 313

Wagenlehner, 2002, Epidemiological analysis of the spread of pathogens from a urological ward using genotypic, phenotypic and clinical parameters, Int J Antimicrob Agents, 19, 583, 10.1016/S0924-8579(02)00093-6

Dalen, 2005, An evaluation of the management of asymptomatic catheter-associated bacteriuria and can-did-uria at The Ottawa Hospital, Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol, 16, 166, 10.1155/2005/868179

Srinivasan, 2006, A prospective trial of a novel, silicone-based, silver-coated foley catheter for the prevention of nosocomial urinary tract infections, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 27, 38, 10.1086/499998

Crnich, 2007, Does the composition of urinary catheters influence clinical outcomes and the results of research studies?, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 28, 102, 10.1086/510875

Warren, 1988, Acute pyelonephritis associated with bacteriuria during long-term catheterization: a prospective clinicopathological study, J Infect Dis, 158, 1341, 10.1093/infdis/158.6.1341

Warren, 1994, Long-term urethral catheterization increases risk of chronic pyelonephritis and renal inflammation, J Am Geriatr Soc, 42, 1286, 10.1111/j.1532-5415.1994.tb06513.x

Mylotte, 2005, Nursing home-acquired bloodstream infection, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 26, 833, 10.1086/502502

Muder, 1992, Bacteremia in a long-term-care facility: a five-year prospective study of 163 consecutive episodes, Clin Infect Dis, 14, 647, 10.1093/clinids/14.3.647

Rudman, 1988, Clinical correlates of bacteremia in a Veterans Administration extended care facility, J Am Geriatr Soc, 36, 726, 10.1111/j.1532-5415.1988.tb07175.x

Stevenson, 2005, Standardized infection surveillance in long-term care: interfacility comparisons from a regional cohort of facilities, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 26, 231, 10.1086/502532

Jewes, 1988, Bacteriuria and bac-te-rae-mia in patients with long-term indwelling catheters—a domiciliary study, J Med Microbiol, 26, 61, 10.1099/00222615-26-1-61

Polastri, 1990, Absence of significant bacteremia during urinary catheter manipulation in patients with chronic indwelling catheters, J Am Geriatr Soc, 38, 1203, 10.1111/j.1532-5415.1990.tb01500.x

Bregenzer, 1997, Low risk of bacteremia during catheter replacement in patients with long-term urinary catheters, Arch Intern Med, 157, 521, 10.1001/archinte.1997.00440260067010

Kunin, 1992, The association between the use of urinary catheters and morbidity and mortality among elderly patients in nursing homes, Am J Epidemiol, 135, 291, 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a116283

Nicolle, 2005, Catheter-related urinary tract infection, Drugs Aging, 22, 627, 10.2165/00002512-200522080-00001

Cohen, 1985, A microbiological comparison of a povidone-iodine lubricating gel and a control as catheter lubricants, J Hosp Infect, 6, 155, 10.1016/S0195-6701(85)80062-1

Daifuku, 1986, Bacterial adherence to bladder uroepithelial cells in catheter-associated urinary tract infection, N Engl J Med, 314, 1208, 10.1056/NEJM198605083141902

Tambyah, 1999, A prospective study of pathogenesis of catheter-associated urinary tract infections, Mayo Clin Proc, 74, 131, 10.4065/74.2.131

Daifuku, 1984, Association of rectal and urethral colonization with urinary tract infection in patients with indwelling catheters, JAMA, 252, 2028, 10.1001/jama.1984.03350150028015

Nickel, 1985, Catheter-associated bacteriuria: an experimental study, Urology, 26, 369, 10.1016/0090-4295(85)90185-2

Schaeffer, 1986, Catheter-associated bacteriuria, Urol Clin North Am, 13, 735, 10.1016/S0094-0143(21)00276-7

Jacobsen, 2008, Complicated catheter-associated urinary tract infections due to Escherichia coli and Proteus mirabilis, Clin Microbiol Rev, 21, 26, 10.1128/CMR.00019-07

Ikaheimo, 1993, Virulence characteristics of Escherichia coli in nosocomial urinary tract infection, Clin Infect Dis, 16, 785, 10.1093/clind/16.6.785

Guyer, 1998, Genomic analysis of a pathogenicity island in uropathogenic Escherichia coli CFT073: distribution of homologous sequences among isolates from patients with pyelonephritis, cystitis, and catheter-associated bacteriuria and from fecal samples, Infect Immun, 66, 4411, 10.1128/IAI.66.9.4411-4417.1998

Johnson, 2003, Microbial virulence determinants and the pathogenesis of urinary tract infection, Infect Dis Clin North Am, 17, 261, 10.1016/S0891-5520(03)00027-8

Ganderton, 1992, Scanning electron microscopy of bacterial biofilms on indwelling bladder catheters, Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis, 11, 789, 10.1007/BF01960877

Bergqvist, 1980, The relevance of urinary sampling methods in patients with indwelling Foley catheters, Br J Urol, 52, 92, 10.1111/j.1464-410X.1980.tb02936.x

Grahn, 1985, Validity of urinary catheter specimen for diagnosis of urinary tract infection in the elderly, Arch Intern Med, 145, 1858, 10.1001/archinte.1985.00360100120020

Tenney, 1988, Bacteriuria in women with long-term catheters: paired comparison of indwelling and replacement catheters, J Infect Dis, 157, 199, 10.1093/infdis/157.1.199

Kunin, 1987, Indwelling urinary catheters in the elderly: relation of “catheter life” to formation of encrustations in patients with and without blocked catheters, Am J Med, 82, 405, 10.1016/0002-9343(87)90438-4

Kunin, 1989, Blockage of urinary catheters: role of microorganisms and constituents of the urine on formation of encrustations, J Clin Epidemiol, 42, 835, 10.1016/0895-4356(89)90096-6

Morris, 1997, Which indwelling urethral catheters resist encrustation by Proteus mirabilis biofilms?, Br J Urol, 80, 58, 10.1046/j.1464-410X.1997.00185.x

Morris, 1998, Encrustation of indwelling urethral catheters by Proteus mirabilis biofilms growing in human urine, J Hosp Infect, 39, 227, 10.1016/S0195-6701(98)90262-6

Stickler, 2002, Strategies for the control of catheter encrustation, Int J Antimicrob Agents, 19, 499, 10.1016/S0924-8579(02)00091-2

Tenke, 2004, Bacterial biofilm formation on urologic devices and heparin coating as preventive strategy, Int J Antimicrob Agents, 23, 67, 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2003.12.007

The prevention management of urinary tract infections among people with spinal cord injuries, 1992, National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research Consensus Statement. 27-29 January 1992, J Am Paraplegia Soc, 15, 194

Stark, 1984, Bacteriuria in the catheterized patient: what quantitative level of bacteriuria is relevant?, N Engl J Med, 311, 560, 10.1056/NEJM198408303110903

Stamm, 1982, Diagnosis of coliform infection in acutely dysuric women, N Engl J Med, 307, 463, 10.1056/NEJM198208193070802

Gribble, 1988, Evaluation of diagnostic criteria for bacteriuria in acutely spinal cord injured patients undergoing intermittent catheterization, Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis, 9, 197, 10.1016/0732-8893(88)90109-5

Ouslander, 1987, An accurate method to obtain urine for culture in men with external catheters, Arch Intern Med, 147, 286, 10.1001/archinte.1987.00370020104045

Nicolle, 1988, Urine specimen collection with external devices for diagnosis of bacteriuria in elderly incontinent men, J Clin Microbiol, 26, 1115, 10.1128/JCM.26.6.1115-1119.1988

Lipsky, 1987, Diagnosis of bacteriuria in men: specimen collection and culture interpretation, J Infect Dis, 155, 847, 10.1093/infdis/155.5.847

Nicolle, 2005, Infectious Diseases Society of America guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of asymptomatic bacteriuria in adults, Clin Infect Dis, 40, 643, 10.1086/427507

Horan, 2008, CDC/NHSN surveillance definition of health care-associated infection and criteria for specific types of infections in the acute care setting, Am J Infect Control, 36, 309, 10.1016/j.ajic.2008.03.002

Raz, 2000, Chronic indwelling catheter replacement before antimicrobial therapy for symptomatic urinary tract infection, J Urol, 164, 1254, 10.1016/S0022-5347(05)67150-9

Tambyah, 2000, The relationship between pyuria and infection in patients with indwelling urinary catheters: a prospective study of 761 patients, Arch Intern Med, 160, 673, 10.1001/archinte.160.5.673

Musher, 1976, Quantitative urinalysis: diagnosing urinary tract infection in men, JAMA, 236, 2069, 10.1001/jama.1976.03270190025022

Steward, 1985, Failure of the urinalysis and quantitative urine culture in diagnosing symptomatic urinary tract infections in patients with long-term urinary catheters, Am J Infect Control, 13, 154, 10.1016/0196-6553(85)90102-6

Gribble, 1989, Pyuria: its relationship to bacteriuria in spinal cord injured patients on intermittent catheterization, Arch Phys Med Rehabil, 70, 376

Cardenas, 1995, Urinary tract infection in persons with spinal cord injury, Arch Phys Med Rehabil, 76, 272, 10.1016/S0003-9993(95)80615-6

Schwartz, 2006, Correlation of urinalysis and dipstick results with catheter-associated urinary tract infections in surgical ICU patients, Intensive Care Med, 32, 1797, 10.1007/s00134-006-0365-5

Norberg, 1979, Effect of short-term high-dose treatment with methenamine hippurate on urinary infection in geriatric patients with an indwelling catheter. IV. Clinical evaluation, Eur J Clin Pharmacol, 15, 357, 10.1007/BF00558440

Walker, 2000, Why are antibiotics prescribed for asymptomatic bacteriuria in institutionalized elderly people? A qualitative study of physicians' and nurses' perceptions, CMAJ, 163, 273

Nicolle, 1994, Consequences of asymptomatic bacteriuria in the elderly, Int J Antimicrob Agents, 4, 107, 10.1016/0924-8579(94)90042-6

Nicolle, 2001, Urinary tract infections in long-term-care facilities, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 22, 167, 10.1086/501886

Loeb, 2001, Development of minimum criteria for the initiation of antibiotics in residents of long-term-care facilities: results of a consensus conference, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 22, 120, 10.1086/501875

Loeb, 2005, Effect of a multifaceted intervention on number of antimicrobial prescriptions for suspected urinary tract infections in residents of nursing homes: cluster randomised controlled trial, BMJ, 331, 669, 10.1136/bmj.38602.586343.55

Jain, 1995, Overuse of the indwelling urinary tract catheter in hospitalized medical patients, Arch Intern Med, 155, 1425, 10.1001/archinte.1995.00430130115012

Wong, 1983, Guideline for prevention of catheter-associated urinary tract infections, Am J Infect Control, 11, 28, 10.1016/S0196-6553(83)80012-1

Munasinghe, 2001, Appropriateness of use of indwelling urinary catheters in patients admitted to the medical service, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 22, 647, 10.1086/501837

Gardam, 1998, Overutilization of indwelling urinary catheters and the development of nosocomial urinary tract infections, Clin Perform Qual Health Care, 6, 99

Gokula, 2004, Inappropriate use of urinary catheters in elderly patients at a midwestern community teaching hospital, Am J Infect Control, 32, 196, 10.1016/j.ajic.2003.08.007

Wald, 2008, Extended use of urinary catheters in older surgical patients: a patient safety problem?, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 29, 116, 10.1086/526433

Saint, 2000, Are physicians aware of which of their patients have indwelling urinary catheters?, Am J Med, 109, 476, 10.1016/S0002-9343(00)00531-3

Gokula, 2007, Emergency room staff education and use of a urinary catheter indication sheet improves appropriate use of foley catheters, Am J Infect Control, 35, 589, 10.1016/j.ajic.2006.12.004

Stephan, 2006, Reduction of urinary tract infection and antibiotic use after surgery: a controlled, prospective, before-after intervention study, Clin Infect Dis, 42, 1544, 10.1086/503837

Lau, 2004, Management of postoperative urinary retention: a randomized trial of in-out versus overnight catheterization, ANZ J Surg, 74, 658, 10.1111/j.1445-1433.2004.03116.x

Lukasse, 2007, Reliability of an automatic ultrasound system for detecting postpartum urinary retention after vaginal birth, Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand, 1

Slappendel, 1999, Non-invasive measurement of bladder volume as an indication for bladder catheterization after orthopaedic surgery and its effect on urinary tract infections, Eur J Anaesthesiol, 16, 503, 10.1097/00003643-199908000-00001

Fedorkow, 2005, The use of an ultrasound bladder scanning device in women undergoing urogynaecologic surgery, J Obstet Gynaecol Can, 27, 945, 10.1016/S1701-2163(16)30740-X

Kunin, 2001, Nosocomial urinary tract infections and the indwelling catheter: what is new and what is true?, Chest, 120, 10, 10.1378/chest.120.1.10

Stevens, 2005, Bladder ultrasound: avoiding unnecessary catheterizations, Medsurg Nurs, 14, 249

Griffiths, 2007, Strategies for the removal of short-term indwelling urethral catheters in adults, Cochrane Database Syst Rev, CD004011

Phipps, 2006, Short term urinary catheter policies following urogenital surgery in adults, Cochrane Database Syst Rev, CD004374

Huang, 2004, Catheter-associated urinary tract infections in intensive care units can be reduced by prompting physicians to remove unnecessary catheters, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 25, 974, 10.1086/502329

Apisarnthanarak, 2007, Effectiveness of multifaceted hospitalwide quality improvement programs featuring an intervention to remove unnecessary urinary catheters at a tertiary care center in Thailand, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 28, 791, 10.1086/518453

Saint, 2005, A reminder reduces urinary catheterization in hospitalized patients, Jt Comm J Qual Patient Saf, 31, 455

Evans, 1998, A computer-assisted management program for antibiotics and other antiinfective agents, N Engl J Med, 338, 232, 10.1056/NEJM199801223380406

Cornia, 2003, Computer-based order entry decreases duration of indwelling urinary catheterization in hospitalized patients, Am J Med, 114, 404, 10.1016/S0002-9343(02)01568-1

Topal, 2005, Prevention of nosocomial catheter-associated urinary tract infections through computerized feedback to physicians and a nurse-directed protocol, Am J Med Qual, 20, 121, 10.1177/1062860605276074

Lo, 2008, Strategies to prevent catheter-associated urinary tract infections in acute care hospitals, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 29, 41, 10.1086/591066

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC) Web page

Zimakoff, 1995, The management of urinary catheters: compliance of practice in Danish hospitals, nursing homes and home care to national guidelines, Scand J Urol Nephrol, 29, 299, 10.3109/00365599509180580

Haley, 1985, The efficacy of infection surveillance and control programs in preventing nosocomial infections in US hospitals, Am J Epidemiol, 121, 182, 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a113990

Tenke, 2008, European and Asian guidelines on management and prevention of catheter-associated urinary tract infections, Int J Antimicrob Agents, 31, 68, 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2007.07.033

Bukhari, 1993, Endemic cross-infection in an acute medical ward, J Hosp Infect, 24, 261, 10.1016/0195-6701(93)90058-8

Fryklund, 1997, Transmission of urinary bacterial strains between patients with indwelling catheters—nursing in the same room and in separate rooms compared, J Hosp Infect, 36, 147, 10.1016/S0195-6701(97)90121-3

Thompson, 1984, Catheter-associated bacteriuria: failure to reduce attack rates using periodic instillations of a disinfectant into urinary drainage systems, JAMA, 251, 747, 10.1001/jama.1984.03340300039025

Goetz, 1999, Feedback to nursing staff as an intervention to reduce catheter-associated urinary tract infections, Am J Infect Control, 27, 402, 10.1016/S0196-6553(99)70005-2

Rosenthal, 2004, Effect of education and performance feedback on rates of catheter-associated urinary tract infection in intensive care units in Argentina, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 25, 47, 10.1086/502291

Saint, 2008, A multicenter qualitative study on preventing hospital-acquired urinary tract infection in US hospitals, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 29, 333, 10.1086/529589

Saint, 2009, Catheter-associated urinary tract infection and the Medicare rule changes, Ann Intern Med, 150, 877, 10.7326/0003-4819-150-12-200906160-00013

Guttman, 1966, The value of intermittent catheterization in the early management of traumatic paraplegia and tetraplegia, Paraplegia, 4, 63

Lapides, 1972, Clean, intermittent self-catheterization in the treatment of urinary tract disease, J Urol, 107, 458, 10.1016/S0022-5347(17)61055-3

Erickson, 1982, Bacteriuria during follow-up in patients with spinal cord injury: I. Rates of bacteriuria in various bladder-emptying methods, Arch Phys Med Rehabil, 63, 409

Weld, 2000, Effect of bladder management on urological complications in spinal cord injured patients, J Urol, 163, 768, 10.1016/S0022-5347(05)67800-7

Jamison, 2004, Catheter policies for management of long term voiding problems in adults with neurogenic bladder disorders, Cochrane Database Syst Rev, CD004375

Duffy, 1995, Clean intermittent catheterization: safe, cost-effective bladder management for male residents of VA nursing homes, J Am Geriatr Soc, 43, 865, 10.1111/j.1532-5415.1995.tb05528.x

Niel-Weise, 2005, Urinary catheter policies for short-term bladder drainage in adults, Cochrane Database Syst Rev, CD004203

Moore, 2007, Long-term bladder management by intermittent catheterisation in adults and children, Cochrane Database Syst Rev, CD006008

Moore, 2006, Intermittent catheterization in the rehabilitation setting: a comparison of clean and sterile technique, Clin Rehabil, 20, 461, 10.1191/0269215506cr975oa

King, 1992, Clean and sterile intermittent catheterization methods in hospitalized patients with spinal cord injury, Arch Phys Med Rehabil, 73, 798

Moore, 1993, Bacteriuria in intermittent catheterization users: the effect of sterile versus clean reused catheters, Rehabil Nurs, 18, 306, 10.1002/j.2048-7940.1993.tb00776.x

Pachler, 1999, A comparison of prelubricated hydrophilic and non-hydrophilic polyvinyl chloride catheters for urethral catheterization, BJU Int, 83, 767, 10.1046/j.1464-410x.1999.00013.x

Prieto-Fingerhut, 1997, A study comparing sterile and nonsterile urethral catheterization in patients with spinal cord injury, Rehabil Nurs, 22, 299, 10.1002/j.2048-7940.1997.tb02122.x

Vaidyanathan, 1994, Urethral cytology in spinal cord injury patients performing intermittent catheterisation, Paraplegia, 32, 493

Diokno, 1995, Patient satisfaction and the LoFric catheter for clean intermittent catheterization, J Urol, 153, 349, 10.1097/00005392-199502000-00015

De Ridder, 2005, Intermittent catheterisation with hydrophilic-coated catheters (SpeediCath) reduces the risk of clinical urinary tract infection in spinal cord injured patients: a prospective randomised parallel comparative trial, Eur Urol, 48, 991, 10.1016/j.eururo.2005.07.018

Vapnek, 2003, A prospective randomized trial of the LoFric hydrophilic coated catheter versus conventional plastic catheter for clean intermittent catheterization, J Urol, 169, 994, 10.1097/01.ju.0000051160.72187.e9

Sutherland, 1996, Clean intermittent catheterization in boys using the LoFric catheter, J Urol, 156, 2041, 10.1016/S0022-5347(01)65430-2

Hedlund, 2001, Hydrophilic versus non-coated catheters for intermittent catheterization, Scand J Urol Nephrol, 35, 49, 10.1080/00365590151030822

Lavallee, 1995, Catheter cleaning for re-use in intermittent catheterization: new light on an old problem, SCI Nurs, 12, 10

Silbar, 1989, Microwave sterilization: a method for home sterilization of urinary catheters, J Urol, 141, 88, 10.1016/S0022-5347(17)40599-4

Griffith, 1993, Microwave sterilization of polyethylene catheters for intermittent self-catheterization, Aust N Z J Surg, 63, 203, 10.1111/j.1445-2197.1993.tb00519.x

Bogaert, 2004, The physical and antimicrobial effects of microwave heating and alcohol immersion on catheters that are reused for clean intermittent catheterisation, Eur Urol, 46, 641, 10.1016/j.eururo.2004.06.016

Douglas, 1990, Microwave: practical cost-effective method for sterilizing urinary catheters in the home, Urology, 35, 219, 10.1016/0090-4295(90)80035-L

Kurtz, 1995, Comparison study of home catheter cleaning methods, Rehabil Nurs, 20, 212, 10.1002/j.2048-7940.1995.tb01629.x

Cardenas, 1988, Residual urine volumes in patients with spinal cord injury: measurement with a portable ultrasound instrument, Arch Phys Med Rehabil, 69, 514

Coombes, 1994, The accuracy of portable ultrasound scanning in the measurement of residual urine volume, J Urol, 152, 2083, 10.1016/S0022-5347(17)32314-5

Goode, 2000, Measurement of postvoid residual urine with portable transabdominal bladder ultrasound scanner and urethral catheterization, Int Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct, 11, 296, 10.1007/s001920070020

Ding, 1996, Clinical utility of a portable ultrasound scanner in the measurement of residual urine volume, Singapore Med J, 37, 365

Polliack, 2005, Clinical and economic consequences of volume- or time-dependent intermittent catheterization in patients with spinal cord lesions and neuropathic bladder, Spinal Cord, 43, 615, 10.1038/sj.sc.3101751

De Ridder, 1997, From time dependent intermittent self-catheterisation to volume dependent self-catheterisation in multiple sclerosis using the PCI 5000 Bladdermanager, Spinal Cord, 35, 613, 10.1038/sj.sc.3100446

Anton, 1998, Clinical utility of a portable ultrasound device in intermittent catheterization, Arch Phys Med Rehabil, 79, 172, 10.1016/S0003-9993(98)90295-7

Hudson, 2005, The ‘no-touch’ method of intermittent urinary catheter insertion: can it reduce the risk of bacteria entering the bladder?, Spinal Cord, 43, 611, 10.1038/sj.sc.3101760

Branagan, 2002, Published evidence favors the use of suprapubic catheters in pelvic colorectal surgery, Dis Colon Rectum, 45, 1104, 10.1007/s10350-004-6368-9

Jannelli, 2007, A randomized, controlled trial of clean intermittent self-catheterization versus suprapubic catheterization after urogynecologic surgery, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 197, 72, 10.1016/j.ajog.2007.02.043

Ouslander, 1987, External catheter use and urinary tract infections among incontinent male nursing home patients, J Am Geriatr Soc, 35, 1063, 10.1111/j.1532-5415.1987.tb04922.x

Ouslander, 1987, Complications of chronic indwelling urinary catheters among male nursing home patients: a prospective study, J Urol, 138, 1191, 10.1016/S0022-5347(17)43546-4

Hirsh, 1979, Do condom catheter collecting systems cause urinary tract infection?, JAMA, 242, 340, 10.1001/jama.1979.03300040026017

Hebel, 1990, The use of urethral, condom, and suprapubic catheters in aged nursing home patients, J Am Geriatr Soc, 38, 777, 10.1111/j.1532-5415.1990.tb01469.x

Zimakoff, 1996, Bladder management and urinary tract infections in Danish hospitals, nursing homes, and home care: a national prevalence study, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 17, 215, 10.2307/30141023

Saint, 2006, Condom versus indwelling urinary catheters: a randomized trial, J Am Geriatr Soc, 54, 1055, 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2006.00785.x

Hackler, 1977, A 25-year prospective mortality study in the spinal cord injured patient: comparison with the long-term living paraplegic, J Urol, 117, 486, 10.1016/S0022-5347(17)58506-7

Donnelly, 1972, Present urologic status of the World War II paraplegic: 25-year followup. Comparison with status of the 20-year Korean War paraplegic and 5-year Vietnam paraplegic, J Urol, 108, 558, 10.1016/S0022-5347(17)60801-2

Shapiro, 1984, A multivariate analysis of risk factors for acquiring bacteriuria in patients with indwelling urinary catheters for longer than 24 hours, Infect Control, 5, 525, 10.1017/S019594170006104X

Carapeti, 1996, Randomised study of sterile versus non-sterile urethral catheterisation, Ann R Coll Surg Engl, 78, 59

Kunin, 1965, Prevention of catheter-induced urinary-tract infections by a new sterile closed drainage system, Antimicrob Agents Chemother (Bethesda), 5, 631

Thornton, 1970, Bacteriuria during indwelling catheter drainage. II. Effect of a closed sterile drainage system, JAMA, 214, 339, 10.1001/jama.1970.03180020059010

Wolff, 1976, Indwelling catheter and risk of urinary infection: a clinical investigation with a new closed-drainage system, Urol Res, 4, 15, 10.1007/BF00256130

Kass, 1956, Asymptomatic infections of the urinary tract, Trans Assoc Am Physicians, 69, 56

Warren, 1978, Antibiotic irrigation and catheter-associated urinary-tract infections, N Engl J Med, 299, 570, 10.1056/NEJM197809142991103

DeGroot-Kosolcharoen, 1988, Evaluation of a urinary catheter with a preconnected closed drainage bag, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 9, 72, 10.2307/30144145

Leone, 2003, Comparison of effectiveness of two urinary drainage systems in intensive care unit: a prospective, randomized clinical trial, Intensive Care Med, 29, 551

Huth, 1992, Clinical trial of junction seals for the prevention of urinary catheter-associated bacteriuria, Arch Intern Med, 152, 807, 10.1001/archinte.1992.00400160103019

Darouiche, 2006, Impact of StatLock securing device on symptomatic catheter-related urinary tract infection: a prospective, randomized, multicenter clinical trial, Am J Infect Control, 34, 555, 10.1016/j.ajic.2006.03.010

Darouiche, 1997, In vitro efficacy of antimicrobial-coated bladder catheters in inhibiting bacterial migration along catheter surface, J Infect Dis, 176, 1109, 10.1086/516523

Johnson, 1999, Activities of a nitrofurazone-containing urinary catheter and a silver hydrogel catheter against multidrug-resistant bacteria characteristic of catheter-associated urinary tract infection, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 43, 2990, 10.1128/AAC.43.12.2990

Ahearn, 2000, Effects of hydrogel/silver coatings on in vitro adhesion to catheters of bacteria associated with urinary tract infections, Curr Microbiol, 41, 120, 10.1007/s002840010105

Schumm, 2008, Types of urethral catheters for management of short-term voiding problems in hospitalised adults, Cochrane Database Syst Rev, CD004013

Drekonja, 2008, Antimicrobial urinary catheters: a systematic review, Expert Rev Med Devices, 5, 495, 10.1586/17434440.5.4.495

Johnson, 2006, Systematic review: antimicrobial urinary catheters to prevent catheter-associated urinary tract infection in hospitalized patients, Ann Intern Med, 144, 116, 10.7326/0003-4819-144-2-200601170-00009

Saint, 1998, The efficacy of silver alloy-coated urinary catheters in preventing urinary tract infection: a meta-analysis, Am J Med, 105, 236, 10.1016/S0002-9343(98)00240-X

Brosnahan, 2004, Types of urethral catheters for management of short-term voiding problems in hospitalised adults, Cochrane Database Syst Rev, CD004013

Plowman, 2001, An economic model to assess the cost and benefits of the routine use of silver alloy coated urinary catheters to reduce the risk of urinary tract infections in catheterized patients, J Hosp Infect, 48, 33, 10.1053/jhin.2001.0938

Saint, 2000, The potential clinical and economic benefits of silver alloy urinary catheters in preventing urinary tract infection, Arch Intern Med, 160, 2670, 10.1001/archinte.160.17.2670

Darouiche, 1999, Efficacy of antimicrobial-impregnated bladder catheters in reducing catheter-associated bacteriuria: a prospective, randomized, multicenter clinical trial, Urology, 54, 976, 10.1016/S0090-4295(99)00288-5

Stensballe, 2007, Infection risk with ni-tro-fu-ra-zone-impregnated urinary catheters in trauma patients: a randomized trial, Ann Intern Med, 147, 285, 10.7326/0003-4819-147-5-200709040-00002

Jahn, 2007, Types of indwelling urinary catheters for long-term bladder drainage in adults, Cochrane Database Syst Rev, CD004997

Rupp, 2004, Effect of silver-coated urinary catheters: efficacy, cost-effectiveness, and antimicrobial resistance, Am J Infect Control, 32, 445, 10.1016/j.ajic.2004.05.002

Kass, 1955, Chemotherapeutic and antibiotic drugs in the management of infections of the urinary tract, Am J Med, 18, 764, 10.1016/0002-9343(55)90190-X

Johnson, 1990, Prevention of catheter-associated urinary tract infection with a silver oxide-coated urinary catheter: clinical and microbiologic correlates, J Infect Dis, 162, 1145, 10.1093/infdis/162.5.1145

Riley, 1995, A large randomized clinical trial of a silver-impregnated urinary catheter: lack of efficacy and staphylococcal superinfection, Am J Med, 98, 349, 10.1016/S0002-9343(99)80313-1

Hustinx, 1991, Impact of concurrent antimicrobial therapy on catheter-associated urinary tract infection, J Hosp Infect, 18, 45, 10.1016/0195-6701(91)90092-M

Niel-Weise, 2005, Antibiotic policies for short-term catheter bladder drainage in adults, Cochrane Database Syst Rev, CD005428

Jaffe, 1985, Prophylactic single-dose co-trimoxazole for prevention of urinary tract infection after abdominal hysterectomy, Chemotherapy, 31, 476, 10.1159/000238377

van der Wall, 1992, Prophylactic ciprofloxacin for catheter-associated urinary-tract infection, Lancet, 339, 946, 10.1016/0140-6736(92)91529-H

Morton, 2002, Antimicrobial prophylaxis for urinary tract infection in persons with spinal cord dysfunction, Arch Phys Med Rehabil, 83, 129, 10.1053/apmr.2002.26605

Niel-Weise, 2005, Urinary catheter policies for long-term bladder drainage, Cochrane Database Syst Rev, CD004201

Rutschmann, 1995, Use of norfloxacin for prevention of symptomatic urinary tract infection in chronically catheterized patients, Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis, 14, 441, 10.1007/BF02114901

Anderson, 1980, Prophylaxis of bacteriuria during intermittent catheterization of the acute neurogenic bladder, J Urol, 123, 364, 10.1016/S0022-5347(17)55938-8

Duffy, 1982, Nitrofurantoin macrocrystals prevent bacteriuria in intermittent self-catheterization, Urology, 20, 47, 10.1016/0090-4295(82)90536-2

Mohler, 1987, Suppression and treatment of urinary tract infection in patients with an intermittently catheterized neurogenic bladder, J Urol, 138, 336, 10.1016/S0022-5347(17)43138-7

Gribble, 1993, Prophylaxis of urinary tract infection in persons with recent spinal cord injury: a prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, Am J Med, 95, 141, 10.1016/0002-9343(93)90254-M

Stamm, 1993, Management of urinary tract infections in adults, N Engl J Med, 329, 1328, 10.1056/NEJM199310283291808

Gleckman, 1979, Drug therapy reviews: methenamine mandelate and methenamine hippurate, Am J Hosp Pharm, 36, 1509

Pearman, 1978, The antimicrobial activity of urine of paraplegic patients receiving methenamine mandelate, Invest Urol, 16, 91

Strom, 1993, Effect of urine pH and ascorbic acid on the rate of conversion of methenamine to formaldehyde, Biopharm Drug Dispos, 14, 61, 10.1002/bdd.2510140106

Devenport, 1984, Formaldehyde generation from methenamine salts in spinal cord injury, Arch Phys Med Rehabil, 65, 257

Nahata, 1981, Effect of ascorbic acid on urine pH, Am J Hosp Pharm, 38, 33

Nahata, 1982, Effect of urinary acidifiers on formaldehyde concentration and efficacy with methenamine therapy, Eur J Clin Pharmacol, 22, 281, 10.1007/BF00545228

Wall, 1990, Long-term acidification of urine in patients treated for infected renal stones, Urol Int, 45, 336, 10.1159/000281732

Hetey, 1980, Effect of ascorbic acid on urine pH in patients with injured spinal cords, Am J Hosp Pharm, 37, 235

Lee, 2007, Spinal-injured neuropathic bladder antisepsis (SINBA) trial, Spinal Cord, 45, 542, 10.1038/sj.sc.3101974

Kuhlemeier, 1985, Prophylactic antibacterial therapy for preventing urinary tract infections in spinal cord injury patients, J Urol, 134, 514, 10.1016/S0022-5347(17)47268-5

Kevorkian, 1984, Methenamine mandelate with acidification: an effective urinary antiseptic in patients with neurogenic bladder, Mayo Clin Proc, 59, 523, 10.1016/S0025-6196(12)61489-X

Lee, 2007, Methenamine hippurate for preventing urinary tract infections, Cochrane Database Syst Rev, CD003265

Knoff, 1985, Methenamine hippurate. Short-term catheterization in gynecologic surgery. A double-blind comparison of Hiprex and placebo [in Norwegian], Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen, 105, 498

Schiotz, 2002, Value of urinary prophylaxis with methenamine in gynecologic surgery, Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand, 81, 743, 10.1034/j.1600-0412.2002.810810.x

Thomlinson, 1968, Persistence of bacteriuria following gynaecological surgery: a trial of methenamine hippurate, Br J Urol, 40, 479, 10.1111/j.1464-410X.1968.tb11838.x

Tyreman, 1986, Urinary tract infection after vaginal surgery: effect of prophylactic treatment with meth-en-a-mine hippurate, Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand, 65, 731, 10.3109/00016348609161491

Miller, 1970, Antibacterial correlates of urine drug levels of hexamethylenetetramine and formaldehyde, Invest Urol, 8, 21

Jepson, 2008, Cranberries for preventing urinary tract infections, Cochrane Database Syst Rev, CD001321

Linsenmeyer, 2004, Evaluation of cranberry supplement for reduction of urinary tract infections in individuals with neurogenic bladders secondary to spinal cord injury: a prospective, double-blinded, placebo-controlled, crossover study, J Spinal Cord Med, 27, 29, 10.1080/10790268.2004.11753727

Waites, 2004, Effect of cranberry extract on bacteriuria and pyuria in persons with neurogenic bladder secondary to spinal cord injury, J Spinal Cord Med, 27, 35, 10.1080/10790268.2004.11753728

Hess, 2008, Evaluation of cranberry tablets for the prevention of urinary tract infections in spinal cord injured patients with neurogenic bladder, Spinal Cord, 46, 622, 10.1038/sc.2008.25

Burke, 1981, Prevention of catheter-associated urinary tract infections: efficacy of daily meatal care regimens, Am J Med, 70, 655, 10.1016/0002-9343(81)90591-X

Burke, 1983, Evaluation of daily meatal care with poly-antibiotic ointment in prevention of urinary catheter-associated bacteriuria, J Urol, 129, 331, 10.1016/S0022-5347(17)52083-2

Marples, 1974, Methods for evaluating topical antibacterial agents on human skin, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 5, 323, 10.1128/AAC.5.3.323

Dudley, 1981, Antimicrobial irrigations in the prevention and treatment of catheter-related urinary tract infections, Am J Hosp Pharm, 38, 59

Davies, 1987, Does instillation of chlorhexidine into the bladder of catheterized geriatric patients help reduce bacteriuria?, J Hosp Infect, 9, 72, 10.1016/0195-6701(87)90098-3

Waites, 2006, Evaluation of 3 methods of bladder irrigation to treat bacteriuria in persons with neurogenic bladder, J Spinal Cord Med, 29, 217, 10.1080/10790268.2006.11753877

van den Broek, 1985, Bladder irrigation with povidone-iodine in prevention of urinary-tract infections associated with intermittent urethral catheterisation, Lancet, 1, 563, 10.1016/S0140-6736(85)91217-6

Ball, 1987, Bladder irrigation with chlorhexidine for the prevention of urinary infection after transurethral operations: a prospective controlled study, J Urol, 138, 491, 10.1016/S0022-5347(17)43237-X

Richter, 1991, Single preoperative bladder instillation of povidone-iodine for the prevention of postprostatectomy bacteriuria and wound infection, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 12, 579, 10.2307/30145242

Mobley, 1987, Urease-positive bacteriuria and obstruction of long-term urinary catheters, J Clin Microbiol, 25, 2216, 10.1128/JCM.25.11.2216-2217.1987

Muncie, 1989, Once-daily irrigation of long-term urethral catheters with normal saline: lack of benefit, Arch Intern Med, 149, 441, 10.1001/archinte.1989.00390020133028

Elliott, 1989, Bladder irrigation or irritation?, Br J Urol, 64, 391, 10.1111/j.1464-410X.1989.tb06049.x

Maizels, 1980, Decreased incidence of bacteriuria associated with periodic instillations of hydrogen peroxide into the urethral catheter drainage bag, J Urol, 123, 841, 10.1016/S0022-5347(17)56156-X

Sweet, 1985, Evaluation of H2O2 prophylaxis of bacteriuria in patients with long-term indwelling Foley catheters: a randomized, controlled study, Infect Control, 6, 263, 10.1017/S0195941700061725

Gillespie, 1983, Does the addition of disinfectant to urine drainage bags prevent infection in catheterised patients?, Lancet, 1, 1037, 10.1016/S0140-6736(83)92657-0

Reiche, 2000, A prospective, controlled, randomized study of the effect of a slow-release silver device on the frequency of urinary tract infection in newly catheterized patients, BJU Int, 85, 54, 10.1046/j.1464-410x.2000.00408.x

Noy, 1982, The use of chlorhexidine in catheter bags, J Hosp Infect, 3, 365, 10.1016/0195-6701(82)90069-X

Suryaprakash, 1984, Formalin in the urinary bag: a cheap measure to control infection in urology wards, Lancet, 2, 104, 10.1016/S0140-6736(84)90275-7

Wazait, 2004, Antibiotics on urethral catheter withdrawal: a hit and miss affair, J Hosp Infect, 58, 297, 10.1016/j.jhin.2004.06.012

Romanelli, 1990, A single dose of aztreonam in the prevention of urinary tract infections in elderly catheterized patients, J Chemother, 2, 178, 10.1080/1120009X.1990.11739014

Wazait, 2004, A pilot randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial on the use of antibiotics on urinary catheter removal to reduce the rate of urinary tract infection: the pitfalls of ciprofloxacin, BJU Int, 94, 1048, 10.1111/j.1464-410X.2004.05102.x

Schneeberger, 1992, A randomized study on the effect of bladder irrigation with povidone-iodine before removal of an indwelling catheter, J Hosp Infect, 21, 223, 10.1016/0195-6701(92)90079-2

Pfefferkorn, 2009, Antibiotic prophylaxis at urinary catheter removal prevents urinary tract infections: a prospective randomized trial, Ann Surg, 249, 573, 10.1097/SLA.0b013e31819a0315

Leone, 2007, A randomized trial of catheter change and short course of antibiotics for asymptomatic bacteriuria in catheterized ICU patients, Intensive Care Med, 33, 726, 10.1007/s00134-007-0534-1

Warren, 1982, Cephalexin for susceptible bacteriuria in afebrile, long-term catheterized patients, JAMA, 248, 454, 10.1001/jama.1982.03330040042029

Alling, 1975, Effect of consecutive antibacterial therapy on bacteriuria in hospitalized geriatric patients, Scand J Infect Dis, 7, 201, 10.3109/inf.1975.7.issue-3.09

Waites, 1993, Eradication of urinary tract infection following spinal cord injury, Paraplegia, 31, 645

Maynard, 1984, Urinary infection and complications during clean intermittent catheterization following spinal cord injury, J Urol, 132, 943, 10.1016/S0022-5347(17)49959-9

Lewis, 1984, Significance of asymptomatic bacteriuria in neurogenic bladder disease, Urology, 23, 343, 10.1016/0090-4295(84)90136-5

Ditunno, 1994, Chronic spinal cord injury, N Engl J Med, 330, 550, 10.1056/NEJM199402243300808

Screening for asymptomatic bacteriuria in adults: U.S, 2008, Preventive Services Task Force reaffirmation recommendation statement, Ann Intern Med, 149, 43, 10.7326/0003-4819-149-1-200807010-00009

Lin, 2008, Screening for asymptomatic bacteriuria in adults: evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force reaffirmation recommendation statement, Ann Intern Med, 149, 20, 10.7326/0003-4819-149-1-200807010-00009-w1

Gross, 2007, Reducing antibiotic overuse: a call for a national performance measure for not treating asymptomatic bacteriuria, Clin Infect Dis, 45, 1335, 10.1086/522183

Harding, 1991, How long should catheter-acquired urinary tract infection in women be treated?. A randomized, controlled study, Ann Intern Med, 114, 713, 10.7326/0003-4819-114-9-713

Nicolle, 2001, A practical guide to antimicrobial management of complicated urinary tract infection, Drugs Aging, 18, 243, 10.2165/00002512-200118040-00002

Dow, 2004, A prospective, randomized trial of 3 or 14 days of ciprofloxacin treatment for acute urinary tract infection in patients with spinal cord injury, Clin Infect Dis, 39, 658, 10.1086/423000

Peterson, 2008, A double-blind, randomized comparison of levofloxacin 750 mg once-daily for five days with ciprofloxacin 400/500 mg twice-daily for 10 days for the treatment of complicated urinary tract infections and acute pyelonephritis, Urology, 71, 17, 10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.002

Warren, 1999, Guidelines for antimicrobial treatment of uncomplicated acute bacterial cystitis and acute pyelonephritis in women. Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA), Clin Infect Dis, 29, 745, 10.1086/520427

Darouiche, 2005, Bacterial interference for prevention of urinary tract infection: a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind pilot trial, Clin Infect Dis, 41, 1531, 10.1086/497272

Beiko, 2004, Urinary tract biomaterials, J Urol, 171, 2438, 10.1097/01.ju.0000125001.56045.6c

Valle, 2006, Broad-spectrum biofilm inhibition by a secreted bacterial polysaccharide, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 103, 12558, 10.1073/pnas.0605399103