Depression risk and body mass index among immigrants and non-immigrants in Canada: results from the Canadian Community Health Surveys, 2010–2014

Luppino FS, de Wit LM, Bouvy PF, Stijnen T, Cuijpers P, Penninx BW, Zitman FG (2010) Overweight, obesity, and depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Arch Gen Psychiatry 67(3):220–229 De Wit LM, Van Straten A, Van Herten M, Penninx BW, Cuijpers P (2009) Depression and body mass index, a u-shaped association. BMC Public Health 9(1):14 Tjepkema M (2006) Adult obesity. Health Rep 17(3):9–25 Pearson C JT, Ali J (2013) Mental and substance use disorders in Canada. Statistics Canada Ottawa 2013 Richard A, Rohrmann S, Lohse T, Eichholzer M (2016) Is body weight dissatisfaction a predictor of depression independent of body mass index, sex and age? Results of a cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health 16(1):863 Chen Y, Jiang Y, Mao Y (2009) Association between obesity and depression in Canadians. J Womens Health 18(10):1687–1692 Gariepy G, Wang J, Lesage AD, Schmitz N (2010) The longitudinal association from obesity to depression: results from the 12-year national population health survey. Obesity 18(5):1033–1038 Jung SJ, Woo H-t, Cho S, Park K, Jeong S, Lee YJ, Kang D, Shin A (2017) Association between body size, weight change and depression: systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry 211(1):14–21 Mannan M, Mamun A, Doi S, Clavarino A (2016) Is there a bi-directional relationship between depression and obesity among adult men and women? Systematic review and bias-adjusted meta analysis. Asian J Psychiatr 21:51–66 Mannan M, Mamun A, Doi S, Clavarino A (2016) Prospective associations between depression and obesity for adolescent males and females-a systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. PLoS One 11(6):e0157240 Blüher M (2019) Obesity: global epidemiology and pathogenesis. Nat Rev Endocrinol 15(5):288 Jung SJ, Woo H-t, Cho S, Park K, Jeong S, Lee YJ, Kang D, Shin A (2018) Association between body size, weight change and depression: systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry 211(1):14–21. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.116.186726 Kim J, Noh JW, Park J, Kwon YD (2014) Body mass index and depressive symptoms in older adults: a cross-lagged panel analysis. PLoS One 9(12):e114891. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0114891 Johnston E, Johnson S, McLeod P, Johnston M (2004) The relation of body mass index to depressive symptoms. Can J Public Health 95(3):179–183 Dong C, Sanchez L, Price R (2004) Relationship of obesity to depression: a family-based study. Int J Obes 28(6):790 Xiang X, An R (2015) Obesity and onset of depression among U.S. middle-aged and older adults. J Psychosom Res 78(3):242–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2014.12.008 Hicken MT, Lee H, Mezuk B, Kershaw KN, Rafferty J, Jackson JS (2013) Racial and ethnic differences in the association between obesity and depression in women. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 22(5):445–452. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2012.4111 De Maio FG (2010) Immigration as pathogenic: a systematic review of the health of immigrants to Canada. Int J Equity Health 9(1):27 Chen J, Ng E, Wilkins R (1996) The health of Canada's immigrants in 1994–95. Health Rep 7:33–46 Setia MS, Quesnel-Vallee A, Abrahamowicz M, Tousignant P, Lynch J (2009) Convergence of body mass index of immigrants to the Canadian-born population: evidence from the National Population Health Survey (1994–2006). Eur J Epidemiol 24(10):611–623. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10654-009-9373-4 Lincoln KD, Abdou CM, Lloyd D (2014) Race and socioeconomic differences in obesity and depression among Black and non-Hispanic White Americans. J Health Care Poor Underserved 25(1):257–275. https://doi.org/10.1353/hpu.2014.0038 Acevedo MC (2000) The role of acculturation in explaining ethnic differences in the prenatal health-risk behaviors, mental health, and parenting beliefs of Mexican American and European American at-risk women. Child Abuse Negl 24(1):111–127 Arroyo-Johnson C, Mincey KD (2016) Obesity epidemiology worldwide. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 45(4):571–579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gtc.2016.07.012 Patten SB, Wang JL, Williams JV, Currie S, Beck CA, Maxwell CJ, El-Guebaly N (2006) Descriptive epidemiology of major depression in Canada. Can J Psychiatry 51(2):84–90. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674370605100204 Kessler RC, Ustun T (2008) The WHO Mental Health Surveys. Global perspectives on the epidemiology of mental disorders. Am Psychiatric Assoc 167:354–355 Jones CA, Pohar SL, Patten SB (2009) Major depression and health-related quality of life in Parkinson's disease. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 31(4):334–340 StataCorp L (2007) Stata data analysis and statistical Software. Special Edition Release 10:733 Sterne JA, White IR, Carlin JB, Spratt M, Royston P, Kenward MG, Wood AM, Carpenter JR (2009) Multiple imputation for missing data in epidemiological and clinical research: potential and pitfalls. BMJ 338:b2393 Desquilbet L, Mariotti F (2010) Dose-response analyses using restricted cubic spline functions in public health research. Stat Med 29(9):1037–1057 Szaflarski M, Cubbins LA, Bauldry S, Meganathan K, Klepinger DH, Somoza E (2016) Major depressive disorder and dysthymia at the intersection of nativity and racial-ethnic origins. J Immigr Minor Health 18(4):749–763 Takeuchi DT, Zane N, Hong S, Chae DH, Gong F, Gee GC, Walton E, Sue S, Alegría M (2007) Immigration-related factors and mental disorders among Asian Americans. Am J Public Health 97(1):84–90 Tomita A, Labys CA, Burns JK (2014) The relationship between immigration and depression in South Africa: evidence from the first South African National Income Dynamics Study. J Immigr Minor Health 16(6):1062–1068 Alegría M, Canino G, Shrout PE, Woo M, Duan N, Vila D, Torres M, Chen C-n, Meng X-L (2008) Prevalence of mental illness in immigrant and non-immigrant US Latino groups. Am J Psychiatry 165(3):359–369 Waugh B (2011) Canadians and Americans are more similar than assumed. Think Sociology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver Wang JL (2004) Rural–urban differences in the prevalence of major depression and associated impairment. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 39(1):19–25 Gee EMT, Kobayashi KM, Prus SG (2004) Examining the healthy immigrant effect in mid-to later life: findings from the Canadian Community Health Survey. Can J Aging 23(5):S55–S63 Garcini LM, Peña JM, Galvan T, Fagundes CP, Malcarne V, Klonoff EA (2017) Mental disorders among undocumented Mexican immigrants in high-risk neighborhoods: Prevalence, comorbidity, and vulnerabilities. J Consult Clin Psychol 85(10):927–936. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000237 Lindert J, von Ehrenstein OS, Priebe S, Mielck A, Brähler E (2009) Depression and anxiety in labor migrants and refugees–a systematic review and meta-analysis. Soc Sci Med 69(2):246–257 Poole DN, Hedt-Gauthier B, Liao S, Raymond NA, Bärnighausen T (2018) Major depressive disorder prevalence and risk factors among Syrian asylum seekers in Greece. BMC Public Health 18(1):908–908. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-5822-x Burnam MA, Hough RL, Karno M, Escobar JI, Telles CA (1987) Acculturation and lifetime prevalence of psychiatric disorders among Mexican Americans in Los Angeles. J Health Soc Behav 28(1):89–102 Janssen-Kallenberg H, Schulz H, Kluge U, Strehle J, Wittchen H-U, Wolfradt U, Koch-Gromus U, Heinz A, Mösko M, Dingoyan D (2017) Acculturation and other risk factors of depressive disorders in individuals with Turkish migration backgrounds. BMC Psychiatry 17(1):264 Breslau J, Borges G, Tancredi D, Saito N, Kravitz R, Hinton L, Vega W, Medina-Mora ME, Aguilar-Gaxiola S (2011) Migration from Mexico to the United States and subsequent risk for depressive and anxiety disorders: a cross-national study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 68(4):428–433. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.21 Blaine B (2008) Does depression cause obesity? A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies of depression and weight control. J Health Psychol 13(8):1190–1197 De Wit L, Luppino F, van Straten A, Penninx B, Zitman F, Cuijpers P (2010) Depression and obesity: a meta-analysis of community-based studies. Psychiatry Res 178(2):230–235 Shoelson SE, Herrero L, Naaz A (2007) Obesity, inflammation, and insulin resistance. Gastroenterology 132(6):2169–2180 Miller AH, Raison CL (2016) The role of inflammation in depression: from evolutionary imperative to modern treatment target. Nat Rev Immunol 16(1):22 Winer DA, Luck H, Tsai S, Winer S (2016) The intestinal immune system in obesity and insulin resistance. Cell Metab 23(3):413–426 Schutter DJ (2012) The cerebello-hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis dysregulation hypothesis in depressive disorder. Med Hypotheses 79(6):779–783 Rodriguez ACI, Epel ES, White ML, Standen EC, Seckl JR, Tomiyama AJ (2015) Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis dysregulation and cortisol activity in obesity: a systematic review. Psychoneuroendocrinology 62:301–318 de Zwaan M (2001) Binge eating disorder and obesity. Int J Obes 25(S1):S51 Tanofsky-Kraff M, Yanovski SZ (2004) Eating disorder or disordered eating? Non-normative eating patterns in obese individuals. Obes Res 12(9):1361–1366 Amy EA, Kozak AT (2012) “The more pain I have, the more I want to eat”: obesity in the context of chronic pain. Obesity 20(10):2027–2034 Goesling J, Clauw DJ, Hassett AL (2013) Pain and depression: an integrative review of neurobiological and psychological factors. Curr Psychiatry Rep 15(12):421 Tyrrell J, Mulugeta A, Wood AR, Zhou A, Beaumont RN, Tuke MA, Jones SE, Ruth KS, Yaghootkar H, Sharp S (2018) Using genetics to understand the causal influence of higher BMI on depression. Int J Epidemiol. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyy223 Martin-Rodriguez E, Guillen-Grima F, Aubá E, Marti A, Brugos-Larumbe A (2016) Relationship between body mass index and depression in women: a 7-year prospective cohort study. The APNA study. Eur Psychiatry 32:55–60 Lee J-H, Park S, Ryoo J-H, Oh C-M, Choi J-M, McIntyre R, Mansur R, Kim H, Hales S, Jung J (2017) U-shaped relationship between depression and body mass index in the Korean adults. Eur Psychiatry 45:72–80 Su Y, Ma Y, Rao W, Yang G, Wang S, Fu Y, Liu Y, Zhang Y, You Y, Yu Y (2016) Association between body mass index and diabetes in northeastern China: based on dose-response analyses using restricted cubic spline functions. Asia Pac J Public Health 28(6):486–497 Rao W, Su Y, Yang G, Ma Y, Liu R, Zhang S, Wang S, Fu Y, Kou C, Yu Y (2016) Cross-sectional associations between body mass index and hyperlipidemia among adults in northeastern china. Int J Environ Res Public Health 13(5):516 Liu X, Zhang D, Liu Y, Sun X, Hou Y, Wang B, Ren Y, Zhao Y, Han C, Cheng C (2018) A J-shaped relation of BMI and stroke: Systematic review and dose–response meta-analysis of 4.43 million participants. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 28(11):1092–1099 Argueta DA, DiPatrizio NV (2017) Peripheral endocannabinoid signaling controls hyperphagia in western diet-induced obesity. Physiol Behav 171:32–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.12.044 Medina-Remón A, Kirwan R, Lamuela-Raventós RM, Estruch R (2018) Dietary patterns and the risk of obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases, asthma, and neurodegenerative diseases. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 58(2):262–296. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2016.1158690