Current challenges for modern vaccines and perspectives for novel treatment alternatives

Brouwers, 2021, Vaccine Production, Safety, and Efficacy, 281 Afrough, 2019, Emerging viruses and current strategies for vaccine intervention, Clin. Exp. Immunol., 196, 157, 10.1111/cei.13295 Elrashdy, 2020, Why COVID-19 transmission is more efficient and aggressive than viral transmission in previous coronavirus epidemics?, Biomol, 10 Iwasaki, 2020, Why and how vaccines work, Cell, 183, 290, 10.1016/j.cell.2020.09.040 Rahman, 2020, Zoonotic diseases: etiology, impact, and control, Microorg, 8, 10.3390/microorganisms8091405 Karesh, 2012, Ecology of zoonoses: natural and unnatural histories, Lancet (London, England), 380, 1936, 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61678-X 2016, After Ebola in west africa — unpredictable risks, preventable epidemics, N. Engl. J. Med., 375, 587, 10.1056/NEJMsr1513109 Rauch, 2018, New vaccine technologies to combat outbreak situations, Front. Immunol., 9, 1963, 10.3389/fimmu.2018.01963 Ozawa, 2016, Return on investment from childhood immunization in low- and middle-income countries, 2011–20, Health Aff., 35, 199, 10.1377/hlthaff.2015.1086 Nelson, 2019 Burke, 1999, Formulation, stability, and delivery of live attenuated vaccines for human use, Crit. Rev. Ther. Drug Carrier Syst., 16 1, 1 Chen, 2009, Opportunities and challenges of developing thermostable vaccines, Expert Rev. Vaccines, 8, 547, 10.1586/erv.09.20 Organization, 2006 Zuo, 2020, Live vaccine preserved at room temperature: preparation and characterization of a freeze-dried classical swine fever virus vaccine, Vaccine, 38, 8371, 10.1016/j.vaccine.2020.10.093 Naik, 2017, Stability of heat stable, live attenuated Rotavirus vaccine (ROTASIIL®),, Vaccine, 35, 2962, 10.1016/j.vaccine.2017.04.025 Sanders, 2015, Inactivated Viral Vaccines BT - Vaccine Analysis: Strategies, Principles, and Control, 45 Dumpa, 2019, Stability of vaccines, AAPS PharmSciTech, 20, 42, 10.1208/s12249-018-1254-2 M, 2008, Self-adjuvanting lipopeptide vaccines, Curr. Med. Chem., 15, 506, 10.2174/092986708783503249 Kumru, 2014, Vaccine instability in the cold chain: mechanisms, analysis and formulation strategies, Biologicals, 42, 237, 10.1016/j.biologicals.2014.05.007 Demento, 2011, Pathogen-associated molecular patterns on biomaterials: a paradigm for engineering new vaccines, Trends Biotechnol., 29, 294, 10.1016/j.tibtech.2011.02.004 Jain, 2013, Nucleic acid aptamers as stabilizers of proteins: the stability of tetanus toxoid, Pharm. Res. (N. Y.), 30, 1871, 10.1007/s11095-013-1030-7 Nascimento, 2012, Recombinant vaccines and the development of new vaccine strategies, Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res., 45, 1102, 10.1590/S0100-879X2012007500142 Brandau, 2003, Thermal stability of vaccines, J. Pharm. Sci., 92, 218, 10.1002/jps.10296 Jezek, 2009, A heat-stable hepatitis B vaccine formulation, Hum. Vaccin., 5, 529, 10.4161/hv.5.8.8600 Braun, 2009, Characterization of a thermostable hepatitis B vaccine formulation, Vaccine, 27, 4609, 10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.05.069 Ramezanpour, 2016, Vector-based genetically modified vaccines: exploiting Jenner's legacy, Vaccine, 34, 6436, 10.1016/j.vaccine.2016.06.059 Crommelin, 2021, Addressing the cold reality of mRNA vaccine stability, J. Pharm. Sci., 110, 997, 10.1016/j.xphs.2020.12.006 İz, 2019 Lee, 2018, Engineering DNA vaccines against infectious diseases, Acta Biomater., 80, 31, 10.1016/j.actbio.2018.08.033 Stenler, 2014, Safety and efficacy of DNA vaccines, Hum. Vaccines Immunother., 10, 1306, 10.4161/hv.28077 Gary, 2020, DNA vaccines: prime time is now, Curr. Opin. Immunol., 65, 21, 10.1016/j.coi.2020.01.006 Huang, 2021, COVID-19 mRNA vaccines, J. Genet. Genomics., 48, 107, 10.1016/j.jgg.2021.02.006 Buschmann, 2021, Nanomaterial delivery systems for mRNA vaccines, Vaccines, 9, 10.3390/vaccines9010065 Cullis, 2017, Lipid nanoparticle systems for enabling gene therapies, Mol. Ther., 25, 1467, 10.1016/j.ymthe.2017.03.013 Edstam, 2002, Comparison of hepatitis B vaccine coverage and effectiveness among urban and rural Mongolian 2-year-olds, Prev. Med., 34, 207, 10.1006/pmed.2001.0972 Wirkas, 2007, A vaccine cold chain freezing study in PNG highlights technology needs for hot climate countries, Vaccine, 25, 691, 10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.08.028 Alam, 2021, Challenges to COVID-19 vaccine supply chain: implications for sustainable development goals, Int. J. Prod. Econ., 239, 10.1016/j.ijpe.2021.108193 Gomez, 2013, 44 Gomez, 2018, 51 Levin, 2007, An economic evaluation of thermostable vaccines in Cambodia, Ghana and Bangladesh, Vaccine, 25, 6945, 10.1016/j.vaccine.2007.06.065 Clénet, 2018, Accurate prediction of vaccine stability under real storage conditions and during temperature excursions, Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm., 125, 76, 10.1016/j.ejpb.2018.01.005 Kis, 2021, Resources, production scales and time required for producing RNA vaccines for the global pandemic demand, Vaccines., 9 Kiesslich, 2020, Vero cell upstream bioprocess development for the production of viral vectors and vaccines, Biotechnol. Adv., 44, 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2020.107608 2021 Gessain, 2012, Epidemiological aspects and world distribution of HTLV-1 infection, Front. Microbiol., 3, 388, 10.3389/fmicb.2012.00388 Pasteur, 2021 Naderi, 2014, Hepatitis C virus and vaccine development, Int. J. Mol. Cell. Med., 3, 207 Earnest-Silveira, 2016, Large scale production of a mammalian cell derived quadrivalent hepatitis C virus like particle vaccine, J. Virol. Methods., 236, 87, 10.1016/j.jviromet.2016.06.012 Casto, 1991, Safe handling of vaccines, Pediatrics, 87, 108, 10.1542/peds.87.1.108 Monie, 2008, Cervarix: a vaccine for the prevention of HPV 16, 18-associated cervical cancer, Biologics, 2, 97 Pasteur, 2019 2018 1998 2021 Chen, 2020, Application prospect of polysaccharides in the development of anti-novel coronavirus drugs and vaccines, Int. J. Biol. Macromol., 164, 331, 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.07.106 Islam, 2021, Adjuvant-pulsed mRNA vaccine nanoparticle for immunoprophylactic and therapeutic tumor suppression in mice, Biomaterials, 266, 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2020.120431 Kim, 2021, Self-assembled mRNA vaccines, Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev., 170, 83, 10.1016/j.addr.2020.12.014 Anderson, 2007, Plasmid DNA and viral vector-based vaccines for the treatment of cancer, Vaccine, 25, 10.1016/j.vaccine.2007.05.030 Huzair, 2017, Biotechnology and the transformation of vaccine innovation: the case of the hepatitis B vaccines 1968-2000, Stud. Hist. Philos. Biol. Biomed. Sci., 64, 11, 10.1016/j.shpsc.2017.05.004 Fries, 2021, Advances in nanomaterial vaccine strategies to address infectious diseases impacting global health, Nat. Nanotechnol., 16, 1, 10.1038/s41565-020-0739-9 Moon, 2012, Enhancing humoral responses to a malaria antigen with nanoparticle vaccines that expand Tfh cells and promote germinal center induction, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. Unit. States Am., 109, 1080, 10.1073/pnas.1112648109 Demento, 2012, Role of sustained antigen release from nanoparticle vaccines in shaping the T cell memory phenotype, Biomaterials, 33, 4957, 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2012.03.041 Bachmann, 1996, The influence of virus structure on antibody responses and virus serotype formation, Immunol. Today, 17, 553, 10.1016/S0167-5699(96)10066-9 Wadhwa, 2020, Opportunities and challenges in the delivery of mRNA-based vaccines, Pharmaceutics, 12, 102, 10.3390/pharmaceutics12020102 Pandya, 2022, Probiotics as Edible Vaccines BT - Probiotic Research in Therapeutics: Volume 3: Probiotics and Gut Skin Axis–Inside Out and outside, 269 Rosales-Mendoza, 2016, Food-grade organisms as vaccine biofactories and oral delivery vehicles, Trends Biotechnol., 34, 124, 10.1016/j.tibtech.2015.11.007 Criscuolo, 2019, Alternative methods of vaccine delivery: an overview of edible and intradermal vaccines, J. Immunol. Res., 2019, 10.1155/2019/8303648 Torres-Tiji, 2020, Microalgae as a future food source, Biotechnol. Adv., 41, 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2020.107536 Gunasekaran, 2020, A review on edible vaccines and their prospects, Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res., 53, 10.1590/1414-431x20198749 Specht, 2017, Host organisms: algae, Ind. Biotechnol., 605 Yan, 2016, The potential for microalgae as bioreactors to produce pharmaceuticals, Int. J. Mol. Sci., 17, 10.3390/ijms17060962 Rosales-Mendoza, 2020, The potential of algal biotechnology to produce antiviral compounds and biopharmaceuticals, Mol, 25, 10.3390/molecules25184049 Sami, 2020, Exploring algae and cyanobacteria as a promising natural source of antiviral drug against SARS-CoV-2, Biomed. J. Rodríguez, 2014, In vitro and in vivo evaluation of two carrageenan-based formulations to prevent HPV acquisition, Antivir. Res., 108, 88, 10.1016/j.antiviral.2014.05.018 Ahmadi, 2015, Antiviral potential of algae polysaccharides isolated from marine sources: a review, BioMed Res. Int., 10.1155/2015/825203 Talarico, 2007, An algal-derived DL -galactan hybrid is an efficient preventing agent for in vitro dengue virus infection, Planta Med., 73, 1464, 10.1055/s-2007-990241 Queiroz, 2008, Inhibition of reverse transcriptase activity of HIV by polysaccharides of brown algae, Biomed. Pharmacother., 62, 303, 10.1016/j.biopha.2008.03.006 Kanekiyo, 2007, Anti-herpes simplex virus target of an acidic polysaccharide, nostoflan, from the edible blue-green alga nostoc flagelliforme, Biol. Pharm. Bull., 30, 1573, 10.1248/bpb.30.1573 Shi, 2017, Overview on the antiviral activities and mechanisms of marine polysaccharides from seaweeds, Carbohydr. Res., 453 Koyande, 2019, Microalgae: a potential alternative to health supplementation for humans, Food Sci. Hum. Wellness., 8, 16, 10.1016/j.fshw.2019.03.001 Hasui, 1995, In vitro antiviral activities of sulfated polysaccharides from a marine microalga (Cochlodinium polykrikoides) against human immunodeficiency virus and other enveloped viruses, Int. J. Biol. Macromol., 17, 293, 10.1016/0141-8130(95)98157-T Takahashi, 1988 Eccles, 2020, Iota-carrageenan as an antiviral treatment for the common cold, Open Virol. J., 14, 9, 10.2174/1874357902014010009 Sangtani, 2021, Potential of algal metabolites for the development of broad-spectrum antiviral therapeutics: possible implications in COVID-19 therapy, Phyther. Res., 35, 2296, 10.1002/ptr.6948 Kwon, 2019, An evaluation of microalgae as a recombinant protein oral delivery platform for fish using green fluorescent protein (GFP), Fish Shellfish Immunol., 87, 414, 10.1016/j.fsi.2019.01.038 Sun, 2003, Foot-and-mouth disease virus VP1 protein fused with cholera toxin B subunit expressed in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii chloroplast, Biotechnol. Lett., 25, 1087, 10.1023/A:1024140114505 Taunt, 2018, Green biologics: the algal chloroplast as a platform for making biopharmaceuticals, Bioengineered, 9, 48, 10.1080/21655979.2017.1377867 Tran, 2012, Production of unique immunotoxin cancer therapeutics in algal chloroplasts, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. Unit. States Am. Franklin, 2005, Recent developments in the production of human therapeutic proteins in eukaryotic algae, Expet Opin. Biol. Ther., 5, 225, 10.1517/14712598.5.2.225 Dreesen, 2010, Heat-stable oral alga-based vaccine protects mice from Staphylococcus aureus infection, J. Biotechnol., 145, 273, 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2009.12.006 Kurup, 2020, Edible vaccines: promises and challenges, Mol. Biotechnol., 62, 79, 10.1007/s12033-019-00222-1 Emad, 2019, The algal biomass as A mechanical carrier for the Lactobacillus bacteria and its uses in the food supplementation, Alexandria J. Vet. Sci., 63, 127, 10.5455/ajvs.67768 Dreesen, 2009, Heat-stable oral alga-based vaccine protects mice from Staphylococcus aureus infection, J. Biotechnol., 145, 273, 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2009.12.006 Dyo, 2018, The algal chloroplast as a synthetic biology platform for production of therapeutic proteins, Microbiology, 164, 113, 10.1099/mic.0.000599 Ramos-Vega, 2021, Microalgae-made vaccines against infectious diseases, Algal Res., 58, 10.1016/j.algal.2021.102408 He, 2007, Recombination and expression of classical swine fever virus (CSFV) structural protein E2 gene in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii chroloplasts, Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces, 55, 26, 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2006.10.042 Demurtas, 2013, A chlamydomonas-derived human papillomavirus 16 E7 vaccine induces specific tumor protection, PLoS One, 8, 10.1371/journal.pone.0061473 Barahimipour, 2016, Efficient expression of nuclear transgenes in the green alga Chlamydomonas: synthesis of an HIV antigen and development of a new selectable marker, Plant Mol. Biol., 90, 403, 10.1007/s11103-015-0425-8 Surzycki, 2009, Factors effecting expression of vaccines in microalgae, Biologicals, 37, 133, 10.1016/j.biologicals.2009.02.005 Castellanos-Huerta, 2016, Recombinant hemagglutinin of avian influenza virus H5 expressed in the chloroplast of <span class="genus-species">Chlamydomonas reinhardtii</span> and evaluation of its immunogenicity in chickens, Avian Dis., 60, 784, 10.1637/11427-042816-Reg Mayfield, 2003, Expression and assembly of a fully active antibody in algae, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 100, 438, 10.1073/pnas.0237108100 Bayne, 2013, Vaccination against influenza with recombinant hemagglutinin expressed by schizochytrium sp. confers protective immunity, PLoS One, 8, 10.1371/journal.pone.0061790 Bañuelos-Hernández, 2017, Algevir: an expression system for microalgae based on viral vectors, Front. Microbiol., 8, 1100, 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01100 Márquez-Escobar, 2018, Expression of a Zika virus antigen in microalgae: towards mucosal vaccine development, J. Biotechnol., 282, 86, 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2018.07.025 Geng, 2003, Stable expression of hepatitis B surface antigen gene in Dunaliella salina (Chlorophyta), J. Appl. Phycol., 15, 451, 10.1023/B:JAPH.0000004298.89183.e5 Feng, 2014, Preparation of transgenic Dunaliella salina for immunization against white spot syndrome virus in crayfish, Arch. Virol., 159, 519, 10.1007/s00705-013-1856-7 Reddy, 2017, Heterologous expression of Infectious bursal disease virus VP2 gene in Chlorella pyrenoidosa as a model system for molecular farming, Plant Cell, Tissue Organ Cult, 131, 119, 10.1007/s11240-017-1268-6 Dagar, 2016, Bioprocess development for extracellular production of recombinant human interleukin-3 (hIL-3) in Pichia pastoris, J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 43, 1373, 10.1007/s10295-016-1816-9 Kumar, 2019, Yeast-based vaccines: new perspective in vaccine development and application, FEMS Yeast Res., 19, 10.1093/femsyr/foz007 Cherf, 2015, Applications of yeast surface display for protein engineering BT - yeast surface display: methods, protocols, and applications, 155 Angrand, 2019, Sneaking out for happy hour: yeast-based approaches to explore and modulate immune response and immune evasion, Genes, 10, 10.3390/genes10090667 Sahoo, 2020, A cross talk between the immunization and edible vaccine: current challenges and future prospects, Life Sci., 261, 10.1016/j.lfs.2020.118343 Patents, 2017, US Patent for Edible vaccines expressed in yeast for preventing and treating infectious diseases in animals and humans Patent, vol. 617, 751 Sasagawa, 2005, A human papillomavirus type 16 vaccine by oral delivery of L1 protein, Virus Res., 110, 81, 10.1016/j.virusres.2005.02.001 Lok, 2016, Randomized phase II study of GS-4774 as a therapeutic vaccine in virally suppressed patients with chronic hepatitis B, J. Hepatol., 65, 509, 10.1016/j.jhep.2016.05.016 Crowell, 2018, On-demand manufacturing of clinical-quality biopharmaceuticals, Nat. Biotechnol., 36, 988, 10.1038/nbt.4262 Perez-Pinera, 2016, Synthetic biology and microbioreactor platforms for programmable production of biologics at the point-of-care, Nat. Commun., 7, 10.1038/ncomms12211 Roohvand, 2017, Biomedical applications of yeast- a patent view, part one: yeasts as workhorses for the production of therapeutics and vaccines, Expert Opin. Ther. Pat., 27, 929, 10.1080/13543776.2017.1339789 Hotez, 2020, Developing a low-cost and accessible COVID-19 vaccine for global health, PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis., 14, 10.1371/journal.pntd.0008548 Bitter, 1988, Hepatitis B vaccine produced in yeast, J. Med. Virol., 25, 123, 10.1002/jmv.1890250202 Wasilenko, 2010, Cell surface display of highly pathogenic avian influenza virus hemagglutinin on the surface of Pichia pastoris cells using α-agglutinin for production of oral vaccines, Biotechnol. Prog., 26, 542, 10.1002/btpr.343 Roberts, 2014, Chapter 26 - Vaccination against Toxoplasmosis: Current Status and Future Prospects, 995 da Silva, 2015, Live bacterial vaccine vectors: an overview, Braz. J. Microbiol., 45, 1117, 10.1590/S1517-83822014000400001 Wyszyńska, 2015, Lactic acid bacteria—20 years exploring their potential as live vectors for mucosal vaccination, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 99, 2967, 10.1007/s00253-015-6498-0 Yurina, 2018, Live bacterial vectors-A promising DNA vaccine delivery system, Med. Sci., 6, 27 Tao, 2011, A novel plasmid for delivering genes into mammalian cells with noninvasive food and commensal lactic acid bacteria, Plasmid, 65, 8, 10.1016/j.plasmid.2010.09.001 Yagnik, 2016, Construction of a new shuttle vector for DNA delivery into mammalian cells using non-invasive Lactococcus lactis, Microb. Infect., 18, 237, 10.1016/j.micinf.2015.11.006 Mancha-Agresti, 2017, A new broad range plasmid for DNA delivery in eukaryotic cells using lactic acid bacteria: in Vitro and In Vivo assays, Mol. Ther. - Methods Clin. Dev., 4, 83, 10.1016/j.omtm.2016.12.005 Chatel, 2008, In vivo transfer of plasmid from food-grade transiting lactococci to murine epithelial cells, Gene Ther., 15, 1184, 10.1038/gt.2008.59 Kong, 2012, Turning self-destructing Salmonella into a universal DNA vaccine delivery platform, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 109, 19414, 10.1073/pnas.1217554109 Shata, 2001, Vaccination with a Shigella DNA vaccine vector induces antigen-specific CD8(+) T cells and antiviral protective immunity, J. Virol., 75, 9665, 10.1128/JVI.75.20.9665-9670.2001 Al-Mariri, 2002, Yersinia enterocolitica as a vehicle for a naked DNA vaccine encoding Brucella abortus bacterioferritin or P39 antigen, Infect. Immun., 70, 1915, 10.1128/IAI.70.4.1915-1923.2002 Zhou, 2015, Expression of Helicobacter pylori urease B on the surface of Bacillus subtilis spores, J. Med. Microbiol., 64, 104, 10.1099/jmm.0.076430-0