Culture and cardiac vagal tone independently influence emotional expressiveness

Beauchaine, T. P. (2001). Vagal tone, development, and Gray’s motivational theory: Toward an integrated model of autonomic nervous system functioning in psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 13(2), 183–214.

Bibevski, S., & Dunlap, M. E. (2011). Evidence for impaired vagus nerve activity in heart failure. Heart Failure Reviews, 16(2), 129–135. doi: 10.1007/s10741-010-9190-6 .

Bond, M. H. (1993). Emotions and their expression in Chinese culture. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 17(4), 245–262. doi: 10.1007/BF00987240 .

Butler, E. A., Lee, T. L., & Gross, J. J. (2007). Emotion regulation and culture: Are the social consequences of emotion suppression culture-specific? Emotion, 7(1), 30–48. doi: 10.1037/1528-3542.7.1.30 .

Butler, E. A., Lee, T. L., & Gross, J. J. (2009). Does expressing your emotions raise or lower your blood pressure? The answer depends on cultural context. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 40(3), 510–517. doi: 10.1177/0022022109332845 .

Chiao, J. Y. (2010). At the frontier of cultural neuroscience: Introduction to the special issue. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 5(2–3), 109–110. doi: 10.1093/scan/nsq064 .

Chiao, J. Y., & Blizinsky, K. D. (2010). Culture-gene coevolution of individualism-collectivism and the serotonin transporter gene. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 277(1681), 529–537. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2009.1650 .

Cohen, H., Kotler, M., Matar, M. A., Kaplan, Z., Loewenthal, U., Miodownik, H., et al. (1998). Analysis of heart rate variability in posttraumatic stress disorder patients in response to a trauma-related reminder. Biological Psychiatry, 44(10), 1054–1059. doi: 10.1016/S0006-3223(97)00475-7 .

Cohen, H., Matar, M. A., Kaplan, Z., & Kotler, M. (1999). Power spectral analysis of heart rate variability in psychiatry. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 68(2), 59–66. doi: 10.1159/000012314 .

Darwin, C. (1872). The expression of the emotions in man and animals. London: John Murray.

Demaree, H. A., Schmeichel, B., Robinson, J., & Everhart, D. E. (2004). Behavioural, affective, and physiological effects of negative and positive emotional exaggeration. Cognition and Emotion, 18(8), 1079–1097. doi: 10.1080/02699930441000085 .

Demaree, H. A., Pu, J., Robinson, J., Schmeichel, B., & Everhart, E. (2006). Predicting facial valence to negative stimuli from resting RSA: Not a function of active emotion regulation. Cognition and Emotion, 20(2), 161–176. doi: 10.1080/02699930500260427 .

Denver, J. W., Reed, S. F., & Porges, S. W. (2007). Methodological issues in the quantification of respiratory sinus arrhythmia. Biological Psychology, 74(2), 286–294. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2005.09.005 .

Ekman, P. (1971). Universals and cultural differences in facial expressions of emotion. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 19, 207–283.

Ekman, P. (1973). Cross-cultural studies of facial expression. In P. Ekman (Ed.), Darwin and facial expression: A century of research in review (1st ed., pp. 169–220). New York: Academic Press Inc.

Fabes, R. A., & Eisenberg, N. (1997). Regulatory control and adults’ stress-related responses to daily life events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1107–1117.

Friedman, B. H., & Thayer, J. F. (1998). Anxiety and autonomic flexibility: A cardiovascular approach. Biological Psychology, 49(3), 303–323.

Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 348–362. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348 .

Grossman, P., & Taylor, E. W. (2007). Toward understanding respiratory sinus arrhythmia: Relations to cardiac vagal tone, evolution and biobehavioral functions. Biological Psychology, 74(2), 263–285. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2005.11.014 .

Immordino-Yang, M. H., McColl, A., Damasio, H., & Damasio, A. R. (2009). Neural correlates of admiration and compassion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106(19), 8021–8026. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0810363106 .

Immordino-Yang, M. H., Yang, X.-F., & Damasio, H. (2014). Correlations between social-emotional feelings and anterior insula activity are independent from visceral states but influenced by culture. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 728. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00728 .

Immordino-Yang, M. H., Yang, X.-F., & Damasio, H. (2016). Cultural modes of expressing emotions influence how emotions are experienced. Emotion, 16(7), 1033–1039. doi: 10.1037/emo0000201 .

Kim, H. S., & Sherman, D. K. (2007). “Express yourself”: Culture and the effect of self-expression on choice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 29(1), 1–11. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.92.1.1 .

Kim, H. S., Sherman, D. K., Mojaverian, T., Sasaki, J. Y., Park, J., Suh, E. M., et al. (2011). Gene-culture interaction: oxytocin receptor polymorphism (OXTR) and emotion regulation. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2(6), 665–672. doi: 10.1177/1948550611405854 .

Kitayama, S., Markus, H. R., & Kurokawa, M. (2000). Culture, emotion, and well-being: good feelings in Japan and the United States. Cognition and Emotion, 14(1), 93–124. doi: 10.1080/026999300379003 .

Kok, B. E., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2010). Upward spirals of the heart: Autonomic flexibility, as indexed by vagal tone, reciprocally and prospectively predicts positive emotions and social connectedness. Biological Psychology, 85(3), 432–436. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2010.09.005 .

Lewis, G. F., Furman, S. A., McCool, M. F., & Porges, S. W. (2012). Statistical strategies to quantify respiratory sinus arrhythmia: Are commonly used metrics equivalent? Biological Psychology, 89(2), 349–364. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2011.11.009 .

Malliani, A., Pagani, M., Lombardi, F., & Cerutti, S. (1991). Cardiovascular neural regulation explored in the frequency domain. Circulation, 84(2), 482–492. doi: 10.1161/01.CIR.84.2.482 .

Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98(2), 224–253. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.98.2.224 .

Matsumoto, D., & Kupperbusch, C. (2001). Idiocentric and allocentric differences in demotional expression, experience, and the coherence between expression and experience. Asian Journal of Social Psychology. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-839X.2001.00080.x .

Matsumoto, D., Yoo, S. H., Fontaine, J., Anguas-Wong, A. M., Arriola, M., Ataca, B., … Boratav, H. B. (2008a). Mapping expressive differences around the world: The relationship between emotional display rules and individualism versus collectivism. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 39(1), 55–74. doi: 10.1177/0022022107311854 .

Matsumoto, D., Yoo, S. H., & Nakagawa, S. (2008b). Culture, emotion regulation, and adjustment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(6), 925–937. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.94.6.925 .

Mesquita, B. (2001). Emotions in collectivist and individualist contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(1), 68–74. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.80.1.68 .

Oveis, C., Cohen, A. B., Gruber, J., Shiota, M. N., Haidt, J., & Keltner, D. (2009). Resting respiratory sinus arrhythmia is associated with tonic positive emotionality. Emotion, 9(2), 265–270. doi: 10.1037/a0015383 .

Pagani, M., Lombardi, F., Guzzetti, S., Rimoldi, O., Furlan, R., Pizzinelli, P., … Piccaluga, E. (1986). Power spectral analysis of heart rate and arterial pressure variabilities as a marker of sympatho-vagal interaction in man and conscious dog. Circulation Research, 59(2), 178–193. 10.1161/01.RES.59.2.178 .

Porges, S. W. (2001). The polyvagal theory: Phylogenetic substrates of a social nervous system. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 42(2), 123–146. doi: 10.1016/S0167-8760(01)00162-3 .

Porges, S. W. (2007). The polyvagal perspective. Biological Psychology, 74(2), 116–143. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2006.06.009 .

Porges, S. W., Doussard-Roosevelt, J. A., & Maiti, A. K. (1994). Vagal tone and the physiological regulation of emotion. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2/3), 167–186. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-5834.1994.tb01283.x .

Pu, J., Schmeichel, B. J., & Demaree, H. A. (2010). Cardiac vagal control predicts spontaneous regulation of negative emotional expression and subsequent cognitive performance. Biological Psychology, 84(3), 531–540. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2009.07.006 .

Rottenberg, J. (2007). Cardiac vagal control in depression: A critical analysis. Biological Psychology, 74(2), 200–211. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2005.08.010 .

Russell, J. A., & Yik, M. S. M. (1996). Emotion among the Chinese. In M. H. Bond (Ed.), The handbook of Chinese psychology (pp. 166–188). New York: Oxford University Press.

Sapolsky, R. M. (2004). Why zebras don’t get ulcers: The acclaimed guide to stress, stress-related diseases, and coping (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Henry Holt & Co LLC.

Soto, J. A., Perez, C. R., Kim, Y.-H., Lee, E. A., & Minnick, M. R. (2011). Is expressive suppression always associated with poorer psychological functioning? A cross-cultural comparison between European Americans and Hong Kong Chinese. Emotion, 11(6), 1450–1455. doi: 10.1037/a0023340 .

Surez-Orozco, C. (2004). Immigrant families and their children: Adaptation and identity formation. In J. R. Blau (Ed.), The Blackwell companion to sociology (pp. 128–139). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. doi: 10.1002/9780470693452.ch10 .

Tarvainen, M. P., Ranta-Aho, P. O., & Karjalainen, P. A. (2002). An advanced detrending method with application to HRV analysis. IEEE Transactions on Bio-Medical Engineering, 49(2), 172–175. doi: 10.1109/10.979357 .

Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and the North American Society of Pacing Electrophysiology. (1996). Heart rate variability: Standards of measurement, physiological interpretation and clinical use. Circulation, 93(5), 1043–1065. doi: 10.1161/01.CIR.93.5.1043 .

Thayer, J. F., & Lane, R. D. (2000). A model of neurovisceral integration in emotion regulation and dysregulation. Journal of Affective Disorders, 61(3), 201–216. doi: 10.1016/S0165-0327(00)00338-4 .

Thayer, J. F., & Sternberg, E. (2006). Beyond heart rate variability: Vagal regulation of allostatic systems. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1088, 361–372. doi: 10.1196/annals.1366.014 .

Thayer, J. F., Friedman, B. H., & Borkovec, T. D. (1996). Autonomic characteristics of generalized anxiety disorder and worry. Biological Psychiatry, 39(4), 255–266. doi: 10.1016/0006-3223(95)00136-0 .

Tsai, J. L. (2007). Ideal affect: Cultural causes and behavioral consequences. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2(3), 242–259. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-6916.2007.00043.x .

Tsai, J. L., Ying, Y.-W., & Lee, P. A. (2000). The meaning of “Being Chinese” and “Being American”: Variation among Chinese American young adults. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 31(3), 302–332. doi: 10.1177/0022022100031003002 .

Tsai, J. L., Chentsova-Dutton, Y. E., Freire-Bebeau, L., & Przymus, D. E. (2002). Emotional expression and physiology in European Americans and Hmong Americans. Emotion, 2(4), 380–397. doi: 10.1037/1528-3542.2.4.380 .

Tsai, J. L., Knutson, B., & Fung, H. H. (2006). Cultural variation in affect valuation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(2), 288–307. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.90.2.288 .