Crosstalk between the growth hormone/insulin-like growth factor-1 axis and the gut microbiome: A new frontier for microbial endocrinology

Growth Hormone & IGF Research - Tập 53 - Trang 101333 - 2020
Elizabeth A. Jensen1,2, Jonathan A. Young2,3, Samuel C. Mathes3, Edward O. List1,3,4, Ronan K. Carroll5,6, Jaycie Kuhn3, Maria Onusko4,5, John J. Kopchick1,3,4,6,7, Erin R. Murphy1,6,7,8, Darlene E. Berryman1,3,4,6,7
1Translational Biomedical Sciences Graduate Program, Graduate College, Ohio University, Athens, OH, United States of America
2Ohio University Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Athens, OH, United States of America
3Edison Biotechnology Institute, Konneker Research Labs, Athens, OH, United States of America
4The Diabetes Institute, Parks Hall Suite 142, Ohio University, Athens, OH, United States of America
5Department of Biological Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, Ohio University, Athens, OH, United States of America
6Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, Ohio University, Athens, OH, United States of America
7Department of Biomedical Sciences, Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, Athens, OH, United States of America
8Infectious and Tropical Diseases Institute, Irvine Hall, Ohio University, Athens, OH, United States of America

Tài liệu tham khảo

Troike, 2017, Impact of growth hormone on regulation of adipose tissue, Compr. Physiol., 7, 819, 10.1002/cphy.c160027 Bratusch-Marrain, 1981, Antidiabetic action of Somatostatin after Oral glucose loading: due to suppression of glucagon and growth hormone or of intestinal carbohydrate absorption?, Horm. Metab. Res., 13, 305, 10.1055/s-2007-1019253 Dorchester, 1953, The effect of anterior pituitary extracts, desiccated thyroid, growth-hormone preparations and ACTH on the extractable secretin of the intestines of hypophysectomized and intact rats, J. Physiol., 119, 266, 10.1113/jphysiol.1953.sp004845 Leblond, 1955, The effect of growth hormone and thyroxine on the mitotic rate of the intestinal mucosa of the rat, Endocrinology, 56, 261, 10.1210/endo-56-3-261 Byrne, 1995, Growth hormone, glutamine, and a modified diet enhance nutrient absorption in patients with severe short bowel syndrome, JPEN J. Parenter. Enteral Nutr., 19, 296, 10.1177/0148607195019004296 Kaymakci, 2014, Protective effects of growth hormone on bacterial translocation and intestinal damage in rats with partial intestinal obstruction, Brat. Med. J., 115, 395, 10.4149/BLL_2014_078 Young, 2019, Characterization of an intestine-specific GH receptor knockout (IntGHRKO) mouse, Growth Hormon. IGF Res., 46-47, 5, 10.1016/j.ghir.2019.05.001 Yakar, 2015 Pereira-Fantini, 2008, Colostrum supplementation restores insulin-like growth factor −1 levels and alters muscle morphology following massive small bowel resection, JPEN J. Parenter. Enteral Nutr., 32, 266, 10.1177/0148607108316197 Scopa, 2000, Beneficial effects of growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor I on intestinal bacterial translocation, endotoxemia, and apoptosis in experimentally jaundiced rats, J. Am. Coll. Surg., 190, 423, 10.1016/S1072-7515(99)00285-9 Sender, 2016, Revised estimates for the number of human and Bacteria cells in the body, PLoS Biol., 14, 10.1371/journal.pbio.1002533 Bäckhed, 2012, Defining a Healthy human gut microbiome: current concepts, future directions, and clinical applications, Cell Host Microbe, 12, 611, 10.1016/j.chom.2012.10.012 Turnbaugh, 2007, The human microbiome project: exploring the microbial part of ourselves in a changing world, Nature, 449, 804, 10.1038/nature06244 Rastelli, 2019, The gut microbiome influences host Endocrine functions, Endocr. Rev., 40, 1271, 10.1210/er.2018-00280 Brunkwall, 2017, The gut microbiome as a target for prevention and treatment of hyperglycaemia in type 2 diabetes: from current human evidence to future possibilities, Diabetologia, 60, 943, 10.1007/s00125-017-4278-3 Sommer, 2013, The gut microbiota — masters of host development and physiology, Nat. Rev. Micro., 11, 227, 10.1038/nrmicro2974 Neuman, 2015, Microbial endocrinology: the interplay between the microbiota and the endocrine system, FEMS Microbiol. Rev., 39, 509, 10.1093/femsre/fuu010 Oliphant, 2019, Macronutrient metabolism by the human gut microbiome: major fermentation by-products and their impact on host health, Microbiome, 7, 10.1186/s40168-019-0704-8 Yan, 2017, Gut microbiome and bone: to build, destroy, or both?, Curr. Osteoporos Rep., 15, 376, 10.1007/s11914-017-0382-z Poinsot, 2018, The emerging connections between IGF1, the intestinal microbiome, Lactobacillus strains and bone growth, J. Mol. Endocrinol., 61, T103, 10.1530/JME-17-0292 Schwarzer, 2018, Gut microbiota: puppeteer of the host juvenile growth, Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care, 21, 179, 10.1097/MCO.0000000000000463 Shortt, 2018, Systematic review of the effects of the intestinal microbiota on selected nutrients and non-nutrients, Eur. J. Nutr., 57, 25, 10.1007/s00394-017-1546-4 Moore, 1946, Use of sulfasuxidine, streptothricin, and streptomycin in nutritional studies with the chick, J. Biol. Chem., 165, 437, 10.1016/S0021-9258(17)41154-9 Stokstad, 1949, The multiple nature of the animal protein factor, J. Biol. Chem., 180, 647, 10.1016/S0021-9258(18)56683-7 Martin, 1942, P-Aminobenzoic acid and sulfonamides in rat nutrition, Exp. Biol. Med., 51, 56, 10.3181/00379727-51-13825 Mikkelsen, 2016, Effect of antibiotics on gut microbiota, glucose metabolism and body weight regulation: a review of the literature, Diabetes Obes. Metab., 18, 444, 10.1111/dom.12637 Podolsky, 2017, Historical perspective on the rise and fall and rise of antibiotics and human weight gain, Ann. Intern. Med., 166, 133, 10.7326/M16-1855 Eyssen, 1963, The mode of action of antibiotics in stimulating growth of chicks, J. Exp. Med., 117, 127, 10.1084/jem.117.1.127 Sieburth, 1951, Effect of antibiotics on intestinal microflora and on growth of turkeys and pigs, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 76, 15, 10.3181/00379727-76-18375 Lane, 2011, Randomised clinical trial: helicobacter pylori eradication is associated with a significantly increased body mass index in a placebo-controlled study, Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther., 33, 922, 10.1111/j.1365-2036.2011.04610.x Mackay, 1956, The influence of vitamin B12 and aureomycin upon the growth of protein-deficient children, J. Nutr., 59, 155, 10.1093/jn/59.1.155 Loughlin, 1957, Correction of simple growth failure in tropical children with low-level doses of oxytetracycline and lysine, Antibiot. Annu., 5, 99 Azad, 2014, Infant antibiotic exposure and the development of childhood overweight and central adiposity, Int. J. Obes., 38, 1290, 10.1038/ijo.2014.119 Smith, 1902, Report LXXIII: on the growth of bacteria in the intestine, Br. Med. J., 2, 1941, 10.1136/bmj.2.2191.1941 Schieber, 2015, Disease tolerance mediated by commensal E. coli via inflammasome and IGF-1 signaling, Science, 350, 558, 10.1126/science.aac6468 Lan, 2017, Effects of Enterococcus faecium SLB 120 on growth performance, blood parameters, relative organ weight, breast muscle meat quality, excreta microbiota shedding, and noxious gas emission in broilers, Poult. Sci., 96, 3246, 10.3382/ps/pex101 Lan, 2017, Effects of Lactobacillus acidophilus supplementation on growth performance, nutrient digestibility, fecal microbial and noxious gas emission in weaning pigs, J. Sci. Food Agric., 97, 1310, 10.1002/jsfa.7866 Lan, 2017, Effects of probiotic supplementation in different nutrient density diets on growth performance, nutrient digestibility, blood profiles, fecal microflora and noxious gas emission in weaning pig, J. Sci. Food Agric., 97, 1335, 10.1002/jsfa.7871 Turnbaugh, 2006, An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest, Nature, 444, 1027, 10.1038/nature05414 Sanz, 2010, Gut microbiota in obesity and metabolic disorders, Proc. Nutr. Soc., 69, 434, 10.1017/S0029665110001813 Forbes, 2018, Association of exposure to formula in the hospital and subsequent infant feeding practices with gut microbiota and risk of overweight in the first year of life, JAMA Pediatr., 172, 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.1161 Baumann-Dudenhoeffer, 2018, Infant diet and maternal gestational weight gain predict early metabolic maturation of gut microbiomes, Nat. Med., 24, 1822, 10.1038/s41591-018-0216-2 Stewart, 2018, Temporal development of the gut microbiome in early childhood from the TEDDY study, Nature, 562, 583, 10.1038/s41586-018-0617-x Novince, 2017, Commensal gut microbiota Immunomodulatory actions in bone marrow and liver have catabolic effects on skeletal homeostasis in health, Sci. Rep., 7, 10.1038/s41598-017-06126-x Sjogren, 2012, The gut microbiota regulates bone mass in mice, J. Bone Miner. Res., 27, 1357, 10.1002/jbmr.1588 Hsu, 2018, From osteoimmunology to osteomicrobiology: how the microbiota and the immune system regulate bone, Calcif. Tissue Int., 102, 512, 10.1007/s00223-017-0321-0 Ohlsson, 2017, Regulation of bone mass by the gut microbiota is dependent on NOD1 and NOD2 signaling, Cell. Immunol., 317, 55, 10.1016/j.cellimm.2017.05.003 Schwarzer, 2016, Lactobacillus plantarum strain maintains growth of infant mice during chronic undernutrition, Science, 351, 854, 10.1126/science.aad8588 Yan, 2016, Gut microbiota induce IGF-1 and promote bone formation and growth, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 113, E7554, 10.1073/pnas.1607235113 Hathaway-Schrader, 2019, Antibiotic perturbation of gut microbiota dysregulates osteoimmune cross talk in postpubertal skeletal development, Am. J. Pathol., 189, 370, 10.1016/j.ajpath.2018.10.017 Blanton, 2016, Childhood undernutrition, the gut microbiota, and microbiota-directed therapeutics, Science, 352, 1533, 10.1126/science.aad9359 Wright, 2015, Recent advances in characterizing the gastrointestinal microbiome in Crohn’s disease: a systematic review, Inflamm. Bowel Dis., 21, 1219 Aurigemma, 2018, Linking the gut microbiota to bone health in anorexia nervosa, Curr. Osteoporos. Rep., 16, 65, 10.1007/s11914-018-0420-5 Chen, 2016, Altered gut microbiota in female mice with persistent low body weights following removal of post-weaning chronic dietary restriction, Genome Med., 8, 10.1186/s13073-016-0357-1 Subramanian, 2014, Persistent gut microbiota immaturity in malnourished Bangladeshi children, Nature, 510, 417, 10.1038/nature13421 Alou, 2017, Gut Bacteria missing in severe acute malnutrition, can we identify potential probiotics by Culturomics?, Front. Microbiol., 8 Pekmez, 2019, Gut microbiota alterations and dietary modulation in childhood malnutrition - the role of short chain fatty acids, Clin. Nutr., 38, 615, 10.1016/j.clnu.2018.02.014 Hoffman, 2017, Microbiome, growth retardation and metabolism: are they related?, Ann. Hum. Biol., 44, 201, 10.1080/03014460.2016.1267261 Chiodini, 2015, Microbial population differentials between mucosal and submucosal intestinal tissues in advanced Crohn’s disease of the ileum, PLoS One, 10, 10.1371/journal.pone.0134382 Lahad, 2015, Current therapy of pediatric Crohn’s disease, World J. Gastrointest. Pathophysiol., 6, 33, 10.4291/wjgp.v6.i2.33 Vatanen, 2018, The human gut microbiome in early-onset type 1 diabetes from the TEDDY study, Nature, 562, 589, 10.1038/s41586-018-0620-2 Zhao, 2018, Gut bacteria selectively promoted by dietary fibers alleviate type 2 diabetes, Science, 359, 1151, 10.1126/science.aao5774 Murugesan, 2018, Gut microbiome production of short-chain fatty acids and obesity in children, Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 37, 621, 10.1007/s10096-017-3143-0 Nambam, 2018, Growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor-I axis in type 1 diabetes, Growth Hormon. IGF Res., 38, 49, 10.1016/j.ghir.2017.12.005 Soendergaard, 2017, Growth hormone resistance—special focus on inflammatory bowel disease, Int. J. Mol. Sci., 18, 10.3390/ijms18051019 Han, 2007, Tumour necrosis factor α blockade induces an anti-inflammatory growth hormone signalling pathway in experimental colitis, Gut, 56, 73, 10.1136/gut.2006.094490 Soendergaard, 2017, Characterization of growth hormone resistance in experimental and ulcerative colitis, Int. J. Mol. Sci., 18, 2046, 10.3390/ijms18102046 Berryman, 2013, The GH/IGF-1 axis in obesity: pathophysiology and therapeutic considerations, Nat. Rev. Endocrinol., 9, 346, 10.1038/nrendo.2013.64 Kojima, 1999, Ghrelin is a growth-hormone-releasing acylated peptide from stomach, Nature, 402, 656, 10.1038/45230 Carro, 1997, Regulation of in vivo growth hormone secretion by leptin, Endocrinology, 138, 2203, 10.1210/endo.138.5.5238 Burgus, 1973, Primary structure of somatostatin, a hypothalamic peptide that inhibits the secretion of pituitary growth hormone, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 70, 684, 10.1073/pnas.70.3.684 Muller, 1999, Neuroendocrine control of growth hormone secretion, Physiol. Rev., 79, 511, 10.1152/physrev.1999.79.2.511 Abizaid, 2020, Ghrelin Signaling: GOAT and GHS-R1a take a LEAP in complexity, Trends Endocrinol. Metab., 31, 107, 10.1016/j.tem.2019.09.006 Javorsky, 2017, Hypothalamus and pituitary gland, vol. 10e Green, 1995, The human obese (OB) gene: RNA expression pattern and mapping on the physical, cytogenetic, and genetic maps of chromosome 7, Genome Res., 5, 5, 10.1101/gr.5.1.5 Bado, 1998, The stomach is a source of leptin, Nature, 394, 790, 10.1038/29547 Sharan, 2014, Hypothalamic control of bone metabolism, Best Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 28, 713, 10.1016/j.beem.2014.04.003 Karsenty, 2006, Convergence between bone and energy homeostases: Leptin regulation of bone mass, Cell Metab., 4, 341, 10.1016/j.cmet.2006.10.008 Zhang, 1994, Positional cloning of the mouse obese gene and its human homologue, Nature, 372, 425, 10.1038/372425a0 Pradhan, 2013, Ghrelin: much more than a hunger hormone, Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care, 16, 619, 10.1097/MCO.0b013e328365b9be Schubert, 2016, Gastric acid secretion, Curr. Opin. Gastroenterol., 32, 452, 10.1097/MOG.0000000000000308 Poher, 2018, Ghrelin regulation of glucose metabolism, Peptides, 100, 236, 10.1016/j.peptides.2017.12.015 Perry, 2016, Acetate mediates a microbiome–brain–β-cell axis to promote metabolic syndrome, Nature, 534, 213, 10.1038/nature18309 Weger, 2019, The mouse microbiome is required for sex-specific diurnal rhythms of gene expression and metabolism, Cell Metab., 29, 362, 10.1016/j.cmet.2018.09.023 Queipo-Ortuno, 2013, Gut microbiota composition in male rat models under different nutritional status and physical activity and its association with serum leptin and ghrelin levels, PLoS One, 8, 10.1371/journal.pone.0065465 Parnell, 2009, Weight loss during oligofructose supplementation is associated with decreased ghrelin and increased peptide YY in overweight and obese adults, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 89, 1751, 10.3945/ajcn.2009.27465 Fukumori, 2011, Plasma ghrelin concentration is decreased by short chain fatty acids in wethers, Domest. Anim. Endocrinol., 41, 50, 10.1016/j.domaniend.2011.04.001 Rahat-Rozenbloom, 2017, The acute effects of inulin and resistant starch on postprandial serum short-chain fatty acids and second-meal glycemic response in lean and overweight humans, Eur. J. Clin. Nutr., 71, 227, 10.1038/ejcn.2016.248 Torres-Fuentes, 2019, Short-chain fatty acids and microbiota metabolites attenuate ghrelin receptor signaling, FASEB J., 33, 13546, 10.1096/fj.201901433R Yue, 2016, Leptin receptor promotes Adipogenesis and reduces Osteogenesis by regulating mesenchymal stromal cells in adult bone marrow, Cell Stem Cell, 18, 782, 10.1016/j.stem.2016.02.015 He, 2016, The relationship between gene polymorphism of Leptin and Leptin receptor and growth hormone deficiency, Med. Sci. Monit., 22, 642, 10.12659/MSM.894978 Schorr, 2017, The endocrine manifestations of anorexia nervosa: mechanisms and management, Nat. Rev. Endocrinol., 13, 174, 10.1038/nrendo.2016.175 Lam, 2012, Intestinal microbiota determine severity of myocardial infarction in rats, FASEB J., 26, 1727, 10.1096/fj.11-197921 Ravussin, 2012, Responses of gut microbiota to diet composition and weight loss in lean and obese mice, Obesity (Silver Spring), 20, 738, 10.1038/oby.2011.111 Kazemi, 2020, Effect of probiotic and prebiotic versus placebo on appetite in patients with major depressive disorder: post hoc analysis of a randomised clinical trial, J. Hum. Nutr. Diet., 33, 56, 10.1111/jhn.12675 Bagarolli, 2017, Probiotics modulate gut microbiota and improve insulin sensitivity in DIO mice, J. Nutr. Biochem., 50, 16, 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2017.08.006 Choi, 2019, Antiobesity effects of Lactobacillus plantarum LMT1-48 accompanied by inhibition of Enterobacter cloacae in the intestine of diet-induced obese mice, J. Med. Food, 22, 560, 10.1089/jmf.2018.4329 Takemura, 2010, Lactobacillus plantarum strain no. 14 reduces adipocyte size in mice fed high-fat diet, Exp. Biol. Med. (Maywood), 235, 849, 10.1258/ebm.2010.009377 Naruszewicz, 2002, Effect of Lactobacillus plantarum 299v on cardiovascular disease risk factors in smokers, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 76, 1249, 10.1093/ajcn/76.6.1249 Gabriel, 2019, The association of short-chain fatty acids and leptin metabolism: a systematic review, Nutr. Res., 72, 18, 10.1016/j.nutres.2019.08.006 Rajala, 2014, Leptin acts independently of food intake to modulate gut microbial composition in male mice, Endocrinology, 155, 748, 10.1210/en.2013-1085 Lucey, 1986, Endogenous somatostatin and the gut, Gut, 27, 457, 10.1136/gut.27.4.457 Siler, 1974, Inhibition by somatostatin on the release of TSH induced in man by thyrotropin-releasing factor, J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 38, 742, 10.1210/jcem-38-5-742 Katznelson, 2014, Acromegaly: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline, J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 99, 3933, 10.1210/jc.2014-2700 Burroughs, 1993, Potential indications for octreotide in gastroenterology: summary of workshop, DIG, 54, 59, 10.1159/000201079 Resmini, 2007, Evidence of prolonged Orocecal transit time and small intestinal bacterial overgrowth in Acromegalic patients, J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 92, 2119, 10.1210/jc.2006-2509 Chowers, 2000, Somatostatin through its specific receptor inhibits spontaneous and TNF-alpha- and bacteria-induced IL-8 and IL-1 beta secretion from intestinal epithelial cells, J. Immunol., 165, 2955, 10.4049/jimmunol.165.6.2955 Terry, 2018, Lipid malabsorption from altered hormonal signaling changes early gut microbial responses, Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol., 315, G580, 10.1152/ajpgi.00135.2018 Yu, 2019, Effects of low-protein diet on the intestinal morphology, digestive enzyme activity, blood urea nitrogen, and gut microbiota and metabolites in weaned pigs, Arch. Anim. Nutr., 73, 287, 10.1080/1745039X.2019.1614849 LeRoith, 1985, Evidence for multiple molecular weight forms of somatostatin-like material in Escherichia coli, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 838, 335, 10.1016/0304-4165(85)90231-4 LeRoith, 1985, Bacillus subtilis contains multiple forms of somatostatin-like material, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 127, 713, 10.1016/S0006-291X(85)80001-2 Wang, 2015, Stability of peptide drugs in the colon, Eur. J. Pharm. Sci., 78, 31, 10.1016/j.ejps.2015.06.018 Cheng, 2019, Early intervention with faecal microbiota transplantation: an effective means to improve growth performance and the intestinal development of suckling piglets, Animal, 13, 533, 10.1017/S1751731118001611 Lu, 2018, Effects of intestinal microbiota on brain development in humanized Gnotobiotic mice, Sci. Rep., 8 Storelli, 2011, Lactobacillus plantarum promotes Drosophila systemic growth by modulating hormonal signals through TOR-dependent nutrient sensing, Cell Metab., 14, 403, 10.1016/j.cmet.2011.07.012 Shin, 2011, Drosophila microbiome modulates host developmental and metabolic homeostasis via insulin signaling, Science, 334, 670, 10.1126/science.1212782 Salehizadeh, 2019, Effects of probiotic lactic acid bacteria on growth performance, carcass characteristics, hematological indices, humoral immunity, and IGF-I gene expression in broiler chicken, Trop. Anim. Health Prod., 51, 2279, 10.1007/s11250-019-01935-w Humam, 2019, Effects of feeding different Postbiotics produced by Lactobacillus plantarum on growth performance, carcass yield, intestinal morphology, gut microbiota composition, immune status, and growth gene expression in broilers under heat stress, Animals (Basel), 9 Izuddin, 2019, Effects of postbiotic supplementation on growth performance, ruminal fermentation and microbial profile, blood metabolite and GHR, IGF-1 and MCT-1 gene expression in post-weaning lambs, BMC Vet. Res., 15, 10.1186/s12917-019-2064-9 Wang, 2013, Short-chain fatty acids inhibit growth hormone and prolactin gene transcription via cAMP/PKA/CREB signaling pathway in dairy cow anterior pituitary cells, Int. J. Mol. Sci., 14, 21474, 10.3390/ijms141121474 Huang, 2019, Viral hormones: expanding dimensions in endocrinology, Endocrinology, 160, 2165, 10.1210/en.2019-00271 Altindis, 2018, Viral insulin-like peptides activate human insulin and IGF-1 receptor signaling: a paradigm shift for host-microbe interactions, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 115, 2461, 10.1073/pnas.1721117115 Buford, 2018, Composition and richness of the serum microbiome differ by age and link to systemic inflammation, Geroscience, 40, 257, 10.1007/s11357-018-0026-y Zheng, 2018, Intestinal epithelial cell-specific IGF1 promotes the expansion of intestinal stem cells during epithelial regeneration and functions on the intestinal immune homeostasis, Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab., 315, E638, 10.1152/ajpendo.00022.2018 Wiesenborn, 2020, The role of Ames dwarfism and calorie restriction on gut microbiota, J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci., 75, E1, 10.1093/gerona/glz236 Jensen, 2020, Growth hormone deficiency and excess alter the gut microbiome in adult male mice, Endocrinology, 161, 1, 10.1210/endocr/bqaa026 Chen, 2018, Distinct effects of growth hormone and glutamine on activation of intestinal stem cells, JPEN J. Parenter. Enteral Nutr., 42, 642, 10.1177/0148607117709435 Kaymakci, 2014, Protective effects of growth hormone on bacterial translocation and intestinal damage in rats with partial intestinal obstruction, Bratisl. Lek. Listy, 115, 395 Bogazzi, 2009, Reduced colonic apoptosis in mice overexpressing bovine growth hormone occurs through changes in several kinase pathways, Growth Hormon. IGF Res., 19, 432, 10.1016/j.ghir.2009.01.002 Chesnokova, 2019, Growth hormone induces colon DNA damage independent of IGF-1, Endocrinology, 160, 1439, 10.1210/en.2019-00132 Chesnokova, 2016, Growth hormone is permissive for neoplastic colon growth, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 113, E3250, 10.1073/pnas.1600561113 Liu, 2020, Gut microbiota mediates intermittent-fasting alleviation of diabetes-induced cognitive impairment, Nat. Commun., 11 Tripathi, 2018, The gut-liver axis and the intersection with the microbiome, Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol., 15, 397, 10.1038/s41575-018-0011-z Lundgren, 2020, The microbiome-adipose tissue axis in systemic metabolism, Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol., 318, G717, 10.1152/ajpgi.00304.2019 Xiao, 2020, The role of the gut microbiome in energy balance with a focus on the gut-adipose tissue Axis, Front. Genet., 11, 297, 10.3389/fgene.2020.00297 Ticinesi, 2019, Exercise and immune system as modulators of intestinal microbiome: implications for the gut-muscle axis hypothesis, Exerc. Immunol. Rev., 25, 84 Zhernakova, 2016, Population-based metagenomics analysis reveals markers for gut microbiome composition and diversity, Science, 352, 565, 10.1126/science.aad3369 Falony, 2016, Population-level analysis of gut microbiome variation, Science, 352, 560, 10.1126/science.aad3503 Gaulke, 2018, The influence of ethnicity and geography on human gut microbiome composition, Nat. Med., 24, 1495, 10.1038/s41591-018-0210-8 He, 2018, Regional variation limits applications of healthy gut microbiome reference ranges and disease models, Nat. Med., 24, 1532, 10.1038/s41591-018-0164-x Ma, 2019, How and why men and women differ in their microbiomes: medical ecology and network analyses of the Microgenderome, Adv. Sci. (Weinh.), 6 Leung, 2004, Estrogen regulation of growth hormone action, Endocr. Rev., 25, 693, 10.1210/er.2003-0035 Jessup, 2003, Sexual dimorphism of growth hormone (GH) regulation in humans: endogenous GH-releasing hormone maintains basal GH in women but not in men, J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 88, 4776, 10.1210/jc.2003-030246 Outeirino-Blanco, 2012, Sexual dimorphism on growth hormone secretion after oral glucose administration, Horm. Metab. Res., 44, 533, 10.1055/s-0032-1304578 Kang, 2017, Gut microbiota mediates the protective effects of dietary capsaicin against chronic low-grade inflammation and associated obesity induced by high-fat diet, mBio, 8, 10.1128/mBio.00470-17