Copper deposition and thermal stability issues in copper-based metallization for ULSI technology

Ghate, 1982, Thin Solid Films, 93, 359, 10.1016/0040-6090(82)90143-2 d'Heurle, 1978, 243 Kopp, 1991, Semicondutor Intern., 40 Miyazaki, 1987, Japan. J. Appl. Phys., 48, 329 Freed, 1982, IBM J. Res. Develop., 26, 362, 10.1147/rd.263.0362 Pai, 1989, IEEE Electron. Device Letters, 10, 424 Mcbrayer, 1986, J. Electrochem. Soc., 123, 1242, 10.1149/1.2108827 Olowolafe, 1990, Appl. Phys. Letters, 57, 1307, 10.1063/1.104230 Li, 1991, J. Appl. Phys., 69, 1020, 10.1063/1.347417 Li, 1991, 153 Ting, 1989, J. Electrochem. Soc., 136, 462, 10.1149/1.2096655 Shacham-Diamand, 1991, J. Micromech. Microeng., 1, 66, 10.1088/0960-1317/1/1/012 Wong, 1991, 203, 347 Awaya, 1992, J. Electron. Mater., 21, 959, 10.1007/BF02684203 Kaloyeros, 1990, 181, 79 Temple, 1989, J. Electrochem. Soc., 136, 3525, 10.1149/1.2096498 Arita, 1990, 39 Gross, 1991, 355 Moylan, 1986, Appl. Phys. A, 40, 1, 10.1007/BF00616584 Wang, 1992, J. Vacuum Sci. Technol. B, 10, 160, 10.1116/1.586290 Muller, 1990, 158, 169 Bai, 1990, J. Vacuum Sci. Technol. A, 8, 1465, 10.1116/1.576858 Eisenbraun, 1991, 397 Stolt, 1991, Thin Solid Films, 200, 147, 10.1016/0040-6090(91)90037-X Li, 1991, NATO ASI Series Russell, 1991, J. Appl. Phys., 70, 5153, 10.1063/1.348995 Cahn, 1984, Scripta Metall., 32, 29 Li, 1989, Phys. Rev. B, 39, 12367, 10.1103/PhysRevB.39.12367 Hymes, 1992, J. Appl. Pjys., 71, 4623, 10.1063/1.350765 Viale, 1991, Oxid. Met., 35, 415, 10.1007/BF00664712 Hong, 1991, J. Appl. Phys., 70, 3655, 10.1063/1.349213 Harper, 1990, Appl. Phys. Letters, 56, 2519, 10.1063/1.103260 Li, 1992, Japan. J. Appl. Phys., 31, L210, 10.1143/JJAP.31.L210 Stolt, 1991, J. Vacuum Sci. Technol. A, 9, 1501, 10.1116/1.577653 Li, 1992, Mater. Phys. Chem. Selamoğlu, 1988, J. Appl. Phys., 64, 1494, 10.1063/1.341823 Yonezawa, 1989, 150, 219 Tsaur, 1981, Phil. Mag. A, 43, 345, 10.1080/01418618108239414 Aboelfotoh, 1990, Phys. Rev. B, 41, 9819, 10.1103/PhysRevB.41.9819 Arcot, 1992, 301 Reynolds, 1991, Appl. Phys. Letters, 59, 2332, 10.1063/1.106060 Lecohier, 1992, J. Appl. Phys., 72, 2022, 10.1063/1.351630 Tamou, 1992, Nucl. Instr. Methods B, 64, 130, 10.1016/0168-583X(92)95451-V Liotard, 1985, J. Appl. Phys., 57, 1895, 10.1063/1.334422 Kojima, 1991, Japan. J. Appl. Phys., 30, 2558, 10.1143/JJAP.30.2558 Shih, 1991, J. Appl. Phys., 70, 3052, 10.1063/1.349337 Pretorius, 1991, J. Appl. Phys., 70, 3636, 10.1063/1.349211 Brown, 1980, Acta Metall., 24, 1088 Li, 1992, J. Appl. Phys., 7, 2810, 10.1063/1.351533 Apblett, 1992, J. Appl. Phys., 71, 4925, 10.1063/1.350641 Turnbull, 1951, Trans. AIME, 191, 661 Porter, 1981, Phase Transformations in Metals and Alloys, 78 Wong, 1986, Appl. Phys. Letters, 48, 335, 10.1063/1.96543 Liu, 1990, J. Appl. Phys., 67, 2354, 10.1063/1.345530 Li, 1992, J. Electrochem. Soc., 139, L37, 10.1149/1.2069383 Otsuki, 1991, 186 Knorr, 1990, Appl. Phys. Letters, 56, 1859, 10.1063/1.103069 Walsh, 1992, J. Vacuum Sci. Technol. A, 10, 1493, 10.1116/1.578272 Liu, 1990, J. Mater. Res., 5, 334, 10.1557/JMR.1990.0334 Mak, 1991, Appl. Phys. Letters, 26, 3449, 10.1063/1.105674 Olowolafe, 1990, J. Appl. Phys., 68, 6207, 10.1063/1.346912 Reid, 1992, J. Mater. Res., 7, 2424, 10.1557/JMR.1992.2424 Takasago, 1989, J. Electron. Mater., 18, 319, 10.1007/BF02657424 Hoshino, 1989, 226 Russell, 1992 Wang, 1989 Apblett, 1991, J. Appl. Phys., 69, 4431, 10.1063/1.348370 Paik, 1990, J. Adhes. Sci. Technol., 4, 465, 10.1163/156856190X00432 Shacham-Diamand, 1991, 109 Rogers, 1991, 137 Ho, 1989, 809 Seshan, 1987, 604 Li, 1991, Nucl. Instr. Methods B, 59/60, 989, 10.1016/0168-583X(91)95303-U Paik, 1990 Faupel, 1989, Appl. Phys. Letters, 55, 357, 10.1063/1.101907 Yang, 1991, 203, 271 Dabral, 1991, 408 Wang, 1990, J. Appl. Phys., 68, 5176, 10.1063/1.347059 Gardner, 1991, 99 Holloway, 1990, Appl. Phys. Letters, 57, 1737, 10.1063/1.104051 Holloway, 1992, J. Appl. Phys., 71, 5433, 10.1063/1.350566 Chang, 1990, J. Appl. Phys., 67, 6184, 10.1063/1.345183 Chang, 1989, Appl. Phys. Letters, 54, 2545, 10.1063/1.101045 Madakson, 1990, J. Appl. Phys., 68, 2121, 10.1063/1.346567 Choi, 1991, J. Electrochem. Soc., 138, 3062, 10.1149/1.2085367 Kolawa, 1991, IEEE Electron. Device Letters, 12, 321, 10.1109/55.82074 Reid, 1991, 285 Charai, 1989, J. Vacuum Sci. Technol. A, 7, 784, 10.1116/1.575840 Pokela, 1991, Appl. Surface Sci., 53, 364, 10.1016/0169-4332(91)90287-T Olowolafe, 1991, Appl. Phys. Letters, 58, 469, 10.1063/1.104610 Sinke, 1985, Appl. Phys. Letters, 47, 471, 10.1063/1.96151 Reid, 1991 Shacham-Diamand, 1991, 329 Keddie, 1991, J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 74, 2937, 10.1111/j.1151-2916.1991.tb06869.x Small, 1990, IBM J. Res. Develop., 34, 858, 10.1147/rd.346.0858 Li, 1992 Li, 1992, Appl. Phys. Letters, 60, 2983, 10.1063/1.106783 Dean, 1973 Li, 1992 Farrens, 1990, 181, 69 Ronnquist, 1961, J. Inst. Met., 89, 651 Kauffe, 1965, Oxidation of Metals, 161 Pilling, 1923, J. Inst. Met., 29, 529 Young, 1956, Acta Metall., 4, 145, 10.1016/0001-6160(56)90132-8 Shin, 1966 Li, 1991, J. Appl. Phys., 70, 2380, 10.1063/1.349411 Fröhlich, 1936, Z. Metallkd., 28, 368 Kobaschewski, 1962, Oxidation of Metals and Alloys, 37 Cabral, 1992, J. Vacuum Sci. Technol. A, 10, 1706, 10.1116/1.577774 Pai, 1989, IEEE Electron. Device Letters, 10, 423, 10.1109/55.34730 Dubin, 1992, J. Electrochem. Soc., 139, 633, 10.1149/1.2069271 Schwarz, 1987, Vol. 15, 345 Rodbell, 1983, Thin Solid Films, 108, 95, 10.1016/0040-6090(83)90045-7 d'Heurle, 1971, 59, 1409 Blech, 1969, J. Appl. Phys., 40, 485, 10.1063/1.1657425 Scorzoni, 1991, Mater. Sci. Rept., 7, 143, 10.1016/0920-2307(91)90005-8 Sullivan, 1967, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 28, 347, 10.1016/0022-3697(67)90131-X d'Heurle, 1975, Thin Solid Films, 25, 531, 10.1016/0040-6090(75)90071-1 Blech, 1976, J. Appl. Phys., 47, 1203, 10.1063/1.322842 Park, 1991, Appl. Phys. Letters, 59, 175, 10.1063/1.106011 Ohmi, 1992, Solid State Technol., 47 A. Dedia and Y. Schacham-Diamand, unpublished. Chittipeddi, 1990, 181, 527 Towner, 1985, 81 Miller, 1980, Thin Solid Films, 69, 379, 10.1016/0040-6090(80)90590-8 Hoshino, 1990, 357 Russell, 1992 Pai, 1990, 359 Flinn, 1991, J. Mater. Res., 6, 1498, 10.1557/JMR.1991.1498 Korhonen, 1991, J. Appl. Phys., 69, 8083, 10.1063/1.347457 Borgesen, 1992, Appl. Phys. Letters, 60, 1706, 10.1063/1.107192 Ohno, 1989, 157 Schwartz, 1983, J. Electrochem. Soc., 130, 1777, 10.1149/1.2120092 Ohno, 1989, Japan. J. Appl. Phys., 28, L1070, 10.1143/JJAP.28.L1070 Howard, 1991, Appl. Phys. Letters, 59, 8, 10.1063/1.106299 F. Druschke, G. Kraus, U. Kuenzel, W.D. Ruth and R. Schaefer, U.S. Patent 4,557,796 (Dec. 1985). Sato, 1991, 759 R.C. Bausmith, W.J. Cote, J.C. Cronin, K.L. Holland, C.W. Kaanta, P.P. Lee and T.M. Wright, U.S. Patent 4,919,750 (April 1990). Farkas, 1991, 445 Rogers, 1992, 239 M. Hiroshi, H. Yoshio, M. Kiichiro, M. Tatsumi and O. Sadayuki, Japan Patent 62.65,331 (March 1987). Yanagisawa, 1989, 174 Sesselmann, 1986, Appl. Phys. A, 41, 209, 10.1007/BF00616842 Krishnan, 1992, 226 Catania, 1992, J. Vacuum Sci. Technol. A, 10, 3318, 10.1116/1.577818