Convergence of microclimate in residential landscapes across diverse cities in the United States
Tóm tắt
The urban heat island (UHI) is a well-documented pattern of warming in cities relative to rural areas. Most UHI research utilizes remote sensing methods at large scales, or climate sensors in single cities surrounded by standardized land cover. Relatively few studies have explored continental-scale climatic patterns within common urban microenvironments such as residential landscapes that may affect human comfort. We tested the urban homogenization hypothesis which states that structure and function in cities exhibit ecological “sameness” across diverse regions relative to the native ecosystems they replaced. We deployed portable micrometeorological sensors to compare air temperature and humidity in residential yards and native landscapes across six U.S. cities that span a range of climates (Phoenix, AZ; Los Angeles, CA; Minneapolis-St. Paul, MN; Boston, MA; Baltimore, MD; and Miami, FL). Microclimate in residential ecosystems was more similar among cities than among native ecosystems, particularly during the calm morning hours. Maximum regional actual evapotranspiration (AET) was related to the morning residential microclimate effect. Residential yards in cities with maximum AET <50–65 cm/year (Phoenix and Los Angeles) were generally cooler and more humid than nearby native shrublands during summer mornings, while yards in cities above this threshold were generally warmer (Baltimore and Miami) and drier (Miami) than native forests. On average, temperature and absolute humidity were ~6 % less variable among residential ecosystems than among native ecosystems from diverse regions. These data suggest that common residential land cover and structural characteristics lead to microclimatic convergence across diverse regions at the continental scale.
Tài liệu tham khảo
APA (2000) Policy guide on planning for sustainability. Adopted by chapter delegate assembly, April 16, 2000; Ratified by Board of Directors, April 17, 2000. American Planning Association, New York, p 15
Avolio ML, Pataki DE, Pincetl S, Gillespie TW, Jenerette GD, McCarthy HR (2015) Understanding preferences for tree attributes: the relative effects of socio-economic and local environmental factors. Urban Ecosyst 18:73–86
Bang C, Sabo JL, Faeth SH (2010) Reduced wind speed improves plant growth in a Desert city. PLoS One 5(6):e11061. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0011061
Barreca AI (2012) Climate change, humidity, and mortality in the United States. J Environ Econ Manag 63(1):19–34
Błażejczyk K, Jendritzky G, Bröde P, Fiala D, Havenith G, Epstein Y, Psikuta A, Kampmann B (2013) An introduction to the universal thermal climate index (UTCI). Geogr Pol 86(1):5–10
Bonan GB (2000) The microclimates of a suburban Colorado (USA) landscape and implications for planning and design. Landsc Urban Plan 49(3):97–114
Brazel AJ, Selover N, Vose R, Heisler G (2000) The tale of two climates: baltimore and Phoenix urban LTER sites. Clim Res 15:123–135
Brazel A, Gober P, Lee SJ, Grossman-Clarke S, Zehnder J, Hedquist B, Comparri E (2007) Determinants of changes in the regional urban heat island in metropolitan Phoenix (Arizona, USA) between 1990 and 2004. Clim Res 33(2):171–182
Bröde P, Krüger E, Rossi F, Fiala D (2012) Predicting urban outdoor thermal comfort by the universal thermal climate index UTCI: a case study in Southern Brazil. Int J Biometeorol 56(3):471–480
Budyko MI (1974) Climate and life. Academic Press, New York
Buyantuyev A, Wu J (2009) Urbanization alters spatiotemporal patterns of ecosystem primary production: a case study of the Phoenix metropolitan region, USA. J Arid Environ 73:512–520
Cadenasso ML, Pickett STA, Schwarz K (2007) Spatial heterogeneity in urban ecosystems: reconceptualizing land cover and a framework for classification. Front Ecol Environ 5(2):80–88
Carey RO, Hochmuth GJ, Martinez CJ, Boyer TH, Dukes MD, Toor GS, Cisar JL (2013) Evaluating nutrient impacts in urban watersheds: Challenges and research opportunities. Environ Pollut 173:138–149. doi:10.1007/s10980-015-0297-y
Cengel YA, Ghajar AJ (2015) Heating and cooling of buildings, chapter 16. Heat and mass transfer: fundamentals and applications, 5th edn. McGraw-Hill, London
Cheng L, Xu Z, Wang D, Cai X (2011) Assessing interannual variability of evapotranspiration at the catchment scale using satellite-based evapotranspiration data sets. Water Resour Res 47(9):W09509
Chow WTL, Brazel AJ (2012) Assessing xeriscaping as a sustainable heat island mitigation approach for a desert city. Build Environ 47:170–181
Chow WTL, Brennan D, Brazel AJ (2012) Urban heat island research in Phoenix, Arizona: theoretical contributions and policy applications. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 93(4):517–530
Chowdhury RR, Larson K, Grove M, Polsky C, Cook E, Onsted J, Ogden L (2011) A multi-scalar approach to theorizing socio-ecological dynamics of urban residential landscapes. Cities Environ 4(1):6
ClimateCHIP (2015) Excel heat stress calculator. Climate CHIP, climatechip.org, New Zealand
Cole L, Foster S (2001) From the ground up: Environmental racism & the rise of the environmental justice movement. New York University Press, New York
Cook EM, Hall SJ, Larson KL (2012) Residential landscapes as social-ecological systems: a synthesis of multi-scalar interactions between people and their home environment. Urban Ecosyst 15(1):19–52
Cronon W (1991) Nature’s metropolis: Chicago and the Great West, 1848–1893. W. W. Norton and Company, New York
Curriero FC, Heiner KS, Samet JM, Zeger SL, Strug L, Patz JA (2002) Temperature and mortality in 11 cities of the eastern United States. Am J Epidemiol 155(1):80–87
Declet-Barreto J, Brazel AJ, Martin CA, Chow WTL, Harlan SL (2013) Creating the park cool island in an inner-city neighborhood: heat mitigation strategy for Phoenix, AZ. Urban Ecosyst 16(3):617–635
Dimoudi A, Nikolopoulou M (2003) Vegetation in the urban environment: microclimatic analysis and benefits. Energy Build 35(1):69–76
Gao J, Sun Y, Lu Y, Li L (2014) Impact of ambient humidity on child health: a systematic review. PLoS One. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0112508
Gobster PH (1994) The urban savanna: reuniting ecological preference and function. Restor Manag Notes 12:64–71
Grimmond S (2007) Urbanization and global environmental change: local effects of urban warming. Geogr J 173(1):83–88
Groffman PM, Cavender-Bares J, Bettez ND, Grove JM, Hall SJ, Heffernan JB, Hobbie SE, Larson KL, Morse JL, Neill C, Nelson K, O'Neil-Dunne J, Ogden L, Pataki DE, Polsky C, Chowdhury RR, Steele MK (2014) Ecological homogenization of urban USA. Front Ecol Environ 12(1):74–81
Guhathakurta S, Gober P (2010) Residential land use, the urban heat island, and water use in Phoenix: a path analysis. J Plan Educ Res 30(1):40–51
Harlan SL, Brazel AJ, Prashad L, Stefanov WL, Larsen L (2006) Neighborhood microclimates and vulnerability to heat stress. Soc Sci Med 63(11):2847–2863
Hartmann DL (1994) Global physical climatology. Academic Press, New York
Heffernan JB, Soranno PA, Angilletta MJ Jr, Buckley LB, Gruner DS, Keitt TH, Kellner JR, Kominoski JS, Rocha AV, Xiao J, Harms TK, Goring SJ, Koenig LE, McDowell WH, Powell H, Richardson AD, Stow CA, Vargas R, Weathers KC (2014) Macrosystems ecology: understanding ecological patterns and processes at continental scales. Front Ecol Environ 12(1):5–14
Imhoff ML, Zhang P, Wolfe RE, Bounoua L (2010) Remote sensing of the urban heat island effect across biomes in the continental USA. Remote Sens Environ 114:504–513
Jankovic V (2013) A historical review of urban climatology and the atmospheres of the industrialized world. Wiley Interdiscip Rev 4(6):539–553
Jenerette GD, Harlan SL, Brazel A, Jones N, Larsen L, Stefanov WL (2007) Regional relationships between surface temperature, vegetation, and human settlement in a rapidly urbanizing ecosystem. Landscape Ecol 22(3):353–365
Jenerette GD, Harlan SL, Stefanov WL, Martin CA (2011) Ecosystem services and urban heat riskscape moderation: water, green spaces, and social inequality in Phoenix, USA. Ecol Appl 21(7):2637–2651
Jenerette GD, Miller G, Buyantuev A, Pataki DE, Gillespie T, Pincetl S (2013) Urban vegetation and income segregation in drylands: a synthesis of seven metropolitan regions in the southwestern United States. Environ Res Lett 8(4):044001
Jesdale BM, Morello-Frosch R, Cushing L (2013) The racial/ethnic distribution of heat risk-related land cover in relation to residential segregation. Environ Health Perspect 121(7):811–817
Jones J, Creed I, Hatcher K, Warren R, Adams M, Benson M, Boose E, Brown W, Campbell J, Covich A, Clow D, Dahm C, Elder K, Ford C, Grimm N, Henshaw D, Larson K, Miles E, Miles K, Sebestyen S, Spargo A, Stone A, Vose J, Williams M (2012) Ecosystem processes and human influences regulate streamflow response to climate change at long-term ecological research sites. Bioscience 62(4):390–404
Kenward A, Yawitz D, Sanford T, Wang R (2014) Summer in the city: hot and getting hotter. Clim Cent, Princeton, pp 1–29
Klepeis NE, Nelson WC, Ott WR, Robinson JP, Tsang AM, Switzer P, Behar JV, Hern SC, Engelmann WH (2001) The National Human Activity Pattern Survey (NHAPS): a resource for assessing exposure to environmental pollutants. J Expon Anal Environ Epidemiol 11(3):231–252
Knapp S, Dinsmore L, Fissore C, Hobbie SE, Jakobsdottir I, Kattge J, King JY, Klotz S, McFadden JP, Cavender-Bares J (2012) Phylogenetic and functional characteristics of household yard floras and their changes along an urbanization gradient. Ecology 93(8):S83–S98
Kunstler JH (1993) Geography of nowhere: the rise and decline of America’s man-made landscape. Simon and Schuster, New York
Larson DW, Matthes U, Kelly PE, Lundholm JT, Gerrath JA (2004) The urban cliff revolution. Fitzhenry & Whiteside, Toronto
Larson KL, Cook E, Strawhacker C, Hall SJ (2010) The influence of diverse values, ecological structure, and geographic context on residents’ multifaceted landscaping decisions. Hum Ecol 38(6):747–761
Larson KL, Nelson KC, Samples SR, Hall SJ, Bettez N, Cavender-Bares J, Groffman PM, Grove M, Heffernan JB, Hobbie SE, Learned J, Morse JL, Neill C, Ogden LA, O’Neil-Dunne J, Pataki DE, Polsky C, Chowdhury RR, Steele M, Trammell TLE (2015) Ecosystem services in managing residential landscapes: Priorities, value dimensions, and cross-regional patterns. Urban Ecosyst 1-19
Lin T-P, Matzarakis A, Hwang R-L (2010) Shading effect on long-term outdoor thermal comfort. Build Environ 45:213–221
Litvak E, Bijoor N, Pataki D (2013) Adding trees to irrigated turfgrass lawns may be a water-saving measure in semi-arid environments. Ecohydrology 7(5):1314–1330
Lowen AC, Steel J (2014) Roles of humidity and temperature in shaping Influenza seasonality. J Virol 88(14):7692–7695
Lundholm JT (2006) Green roofs and facades: a habitat template approach. Urban Habitats 4(1):87–101
Lundholm JT, Marlin A (2006) Habitat origins and microhabitat preferences of urban plant species. Urban Ecosyst 9:139–159
Mander P (2012) How to convert relative humidity to absolute humidity. https://carnotcycle.wordpress.com/2012/08/04/how-to-convert-relative-humidity-to-absolute-humidity/. Accessed Jan 2015
Marshall T, Ruddell BL (unpublished) Performance evaluation of a low-cost printable radiation shield
Martini NF, Nelson KC, Hobbie SE, Baker LC (2013) Why “Feed the Lawn”? Exploring the influence of residential turf grass fertilization in the Minneapolis-Saint Paul Metropolitan Area. Environ Behav. doi:10.1177/0013916513492418
McKinney M (2006) Urbanization as a major cause of biotic homogenization. Biol Conserv 127:247–260
Middel A, Brazel AJ, Gober P, Myint SW, Chang H (2012) Land cover, climate, and the summer surface energy balance in Phoenix, AZ, and Portland, OR. Int J Climatol 32(13):2020–2032
Middel A, Haeb K, Brazel AJ, Martin CA, Guhathakurta S (2014) Impact of urban form and design on mid-afternoon microclimate in Phoenix local climate zones. Landsc Urban Plan 122:16–28
Mitchell BC, Chakraborty J (2014) Urban heat and climate justice: a landscape of thermal inequity in Pinellas County, Florida. Geogr Rev 104(4):459–480
NOAA National Weather Service (2015) Glossary. www.nws.noaa.gov/glossary/. Accessed 7 Sept 2015
Nowak DJ, Greenfield EJ (2012) Tree and impervious cover change in U.S. cities. Urban For Urban Green 11:21–30
Oke TR (1982) The energetic basis of the urban heat island. Q J R Meteorol Soc 108(455):1–24
Oke TR (1987) Boundary layer climates. Methuen Publishing, London
Orians G (1986) An ecological and evolutionary approach to landscape aesthetics. In: Penning-Rowsell EC, Lowenthal D (eds) Landscape meanings and values. Allen and Unwin, London, pp 3–25
Peng LLH, Jim CY (2013) Green-roof effects on neighborhood microclimate and human thermal sensation. Energies 6(2):598–618
Polsky C, Grove JM, Knudson C, Groffman PM, Bettez N, Cavender-Bares J, Hall SJ, Heffernan JB, Hobbie SE, Larson KL, Morse JL, Neill C, Nelson KC, Ogden LA, O'Neil-Dunne J, Pataki DE, Chowdhury RR, Steele MK (2014) Assessing the homogenization of urban land management with an application to us residential lawn care. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 111(12):4432–4437
Pouyat RV, Pataki DE, Belt KT, Groffman PM, Hom J, Band LE (2007) Effects of urban land-use change on biogeochemical cycles. Terrestrial ecosystems in a changing World. Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg/New York, pp 45–58
Robbins P (2007) Lawn people: how grasses, weeds, and chemicals make us who we are. Temple University Press, Philadelphia
Robbins P, Polderman A, Birkenholtz T (2001) Lawns and toxins: an ecology of the city. Cities 18(6):369–380
Roth M (2007) Review of urban climate research in (sub)tropical regions. Int J Climatol 27:1859–1873
Sanford WE, Selnick DL (2013) Estimation of evapotranspiration across the conterminous United States using a regression with climate and land-cover data. J Am Water Resour Assoc 49(1):217–230
Shaman J, Kohn M (2009) Absolute humidity modulates influenza survival, transmission, and seasonality. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106(9):3243–3248
Spronken-Smith R, Oke T, Lowry W (2000) Advection and the surface energy balance across an irrigated urban park. Int J Climatol 20:1033–1047
St. Hilaire R, VanLeeuwen DM, Torres P (2010) Landscape preferences and water conservation choices of residents in a high desert environment. HortTechnology 20(2):308–314
Stathopoulos T, Wu H, Zacharias J (2004) Outdoor human comfort in an urban climate. Build Environ 39(3):297–305
Steele MK, Heffernan JB, Bettez N, Cavender-Bares J, Groffman PM, Grove JM, Hall S, Hobbie SE, Larson K, Morse JL, Neill C, Nelson KC, O'Neil-Dunne J, Ogden L, Pataki DE, Polsky C, Chowdhury RR (2014) Convergent surface water distributions in us cities. Ecosystems 17(4):685–697
Stone B, Vargo J, Habeeb D (2012) Managing climate change in cities: will climate action plans work? Landsc Urban Plan 107(3):263–271
Tamerius JD, Shaman J, Alonso WJ, Bloom-Feshbach K, Uejio CK, Comrie A, Viboud C (2013) Environmental predictors of seasonal Influenza epidemics across temperate and tropical climates. PLoS Pathog. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1003194
UN (2014) World urbanization prospects: The 2014 Revision. Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, United Nations
Wendt KM, Coffin BA (1988) Natural vegetation of Minnesota at the time of the public land survey, 1847–1907. In: Winchell NH (ed) Program. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, pp 1–6
Wong KV, Chaudhry S (2012) Use of satellite images for observational and quantitative analysis of urban heat islands around the world. J Energy Res Technol 134(042101):1–8
Wu XM, Fan ZT, Ohman-Strickland P (2010) Time-location patterns of a population living in an air pollution hotspot. J Environ Public Health. doi:10.1155/2010/625461
Zhang X, Friedl MA, Schaaf CB, Strahler AH, Schneider A (2004) The footprint of urban climates on vegetation phenology. Geophys Res Lett. doi:10.1029/2004GL020137
Zhao L, Lee X, Smith RB, Oleson K (2014) Strong contributions of local background climate to urban heat islands. Nature 511(7508):216–219
Zhu P, Zhang Y (2008) Demand for urban forests in United States cities. Landsc Urban Plan 84(3–4):293–300