Controversies in anesthesia-induced developmental neurotoxicity

Jevtovic-Todorovic, 2003, Early exposure to common anesthetic agents causes widespread neurodegeneration in the developing rat brain and persistent learning deficits, J Neurosci, 23, 876, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.23-03-00876.2003 Gonzales, 2015, Repeated neonatal propofol administration induces sex-dependent long-term impairments on spatial and recognition memory in rats, Biomol Ther (Seoul), 23, 251, 10.4062/biomolther.2014.120 Boscolo, 2013, Mitochondrial protectant pramipexole prevents sex-specific long-term cognitive impairment from early anaesthesia exposure in rats, Br J Anaesth, 110, i47, 10.1093/bja/aet073 Diana, 2020, Early exposure to general anesthesia impairs social and emotional development in rats, Mol Neurobiol, 57, 41, 10.1007/s12035-019-01755-x Raper, 2015, Multiple anesthetic exposure in infant monkeys alters emotional reactivity to an acute stressor, Anesthesiology, 123, 1084, 10.1097/ALN.0000000000000851 Ko, 2016, Optimal timing of surgical procedures in pediatric patients, J Neurosurg Anesthesiol, 28, 395, 10.1097/ANA.0000000000000354 Angel, 1993, Central neuronal pathways and the process of anaesthesia, Br J Anaesth, 71, 148, 10.1093/bja/71.1.148 Collins, 1995, Anesthetic actions within the spinal cord: contributions to the state of general anesthesia, Trends Neurosci, 18, 549, 10.1016/0166-2236(95)98377-B Urban, 2006, Interactions of anesthetics with their targets: non-specific, specific or both?, Pharmacol Ther, 111, 729, 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2005.12.005 Pavel, 2020, Studies on the mechanism of general anesthesia, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 117, 13757, 10.1073/pnas.2004259117 Iqbal, 2019, Anesthetics: from modes of action to unconsciousness and neurotoxicity, J Neurophysiol, 122, 760, 10.1152/jn.00210.2019 Li, 2018, Regulatory effect of general anesthetics on activity of potassium channels, Neurosci Bull, 34, 887, 10.1007/s12264-018-0239-1 Eckle, 2012, Inhibition of T-type calcium current in rat thalamocortical neurons by isoflurane, Neuropharmacology, 63, 266, 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2012.03.018 Timic Stamenic, 2019, Alterations in oscillatory behavior of central medial thalamic neurons demonstrate a key role of CaV3.1 isoform of T-channels during isoflurane-induced anesthesia, Cerebr Cortex, 29, 4679, 10.1093/cercor/bhz002 Ben-Ari, 2002, Excitatory actions of gaba during development: the nature of the nurture, Nat Rev Neurosci, 3, 728, 10.1038/nrn920 Luján, 2005, Glutamate and GABA receptor signalling in the developing brain, Neuroscience, 130, 567, 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2004.09.042 Bolneo, 2022, Investigating the role of GABA in neural development and disease using mice lacking GAD67 or VGAT genes, Int J Mol Sci, 23, 10.3390/ijms23147965 Saad, 2022, Role of brain modulators in neurodevelopment: focus on autism spectrum disorder and associated comorbidities, Pharmaceuticals, 15, 10.3390/ph15050612 Ikonomidou, 1999, Blockade of NMDA receptors and apoptotic neurodegeneration in the developing brain, Science, 283, 70, 10.1126/science.283.5398.70 Ikonomidou, 2000, Ethanol-induced apoptotic neurodegeneration and fetal alcohol syndrome, Science, 287, 1056, 10.1126/science.287.5455.1056 Yon, 2005, Anesthesia induces neuronal cell death in the developing rat brain via the intrinsic and extrinsic apoptotic pathways, Neuroscience, 135, 815, 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.03.064 Dobbing, 1979, Comparative aspects of the brain growth spurt, Early Hum Dev, 3, 79, 10.1016/0378-3782(79)90022-7 Bourgeois, 1994, Synaptogenesis in the prefrontal cortex of rhesus monkeys, Cerebr Cortex, 4, 78, 10.1093/cercor/4.1.78 Huttenlocher, 1997, Regional differences in synaptogenesis in human cerebral cortex, J Comp Neurol, 387, 167, 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19971020)387:2<167::AID-CNE1>3.0.CO;2-Z Fernando, 2012, Selectionist and evolutionary approaches to brain function: a critical appraisal, Front Comput Neurosci, 6, 24, 10.3389/fncom.2012.00024 Cabrera, 2020, Sevoflurane-induced dysregulation of cation-chloride cotransporters NKCC1 and KCC2 in neonatal mouse brain, Mol Neurobiol, 57, 1, 10.1007/s12035-019-01751-1 Dzhala, 2005, NKCC1 transporter facilitates seizures in the developing brain, Nat Med, 11, 1205, 10.1038/nm1301 Obradovic, 2018, Early exposure to ketamine impairs axonal pruning in developing mouse Hippocampus, Mol Neurobiol, 55, 164, 10.1007/s12035-017-0730-0 Cabrera, 2022, Neonatal ketamine exposure impairs infrapyramidal bundle pruning and causes lasting increase in excitatory synaptic transmission in hippocampal CA3 neurons, Neurobiol Dis, 175, 10.1016/j.nbd.2022.105923 Stratmann, 2014, Effect of general anesthesia in infancy on long-term recognition memory in humans and rats, Neuropsychopharmacology, 39, 2275, 10.1038/npp.2014.134 Warner, 2018, Neuropsychological and behavioral outcomes after exposure of young children to procedures requiring general anesthesia: the Mayo anesthesia safety in Kids (MASK) study, Anesthesiology, 129, 89, 10.1097/ALN.0000000000002232 Wilder, 2009, Early exposure to anesthesia and learning disabilities in a population-based birth cohort, Anesthesiology, 110, 796, 10.1097/01.anes.0000344728.34332.5d Flick, 2011, Cognitive and behavioral outcomes after early exposure to anesthesia and surgery, Pediatrics, 128, e1053, 10.1542/peds.2011-0351 DiMaggio, 2011, Early childhood exposure to anesthesia and risk of developmental and behavioral disorders in a sibling birth cohort, Anesth Analg, 113, 1143, 10.1213/ANE.0b013e3182147f42 Graham, 2016, Neurodevelopmental assessment in kindergarten in children exposed to general anesthesia before the age of 4 Years: a retrospective matched cohort study, Anesthesiology, 125, 667, 10.1097/ALN.0000000000001245 O'Leary, 2016, A population-based study evaluating the association between surgery in early life and child development at primary school entry, Anesthesiology, 125, 272, 10.1097/ALN.0000000000001200 Kalkman, 2009, Behavior and development in children and age at the time of first anesthetic exposure, Anesthesiology, 110, 805, 10.1097/ALN.0b013e31819c7124 DiMaggio, 2009, A retrospective cohort study of the association of anesthesia and hernia repair surgery with behavioral and developmental disorders in young children, J Neurosurg Anesthesiol, 21, 286, 10.1097/ANA.0b013e3181a71f11 Satomoto, 2009, Neonatal exposure to sevoflurane induces abnormal social behaviors and deficits in fear conditioning in mice, Anesthesiology, 110, 628, 10.1097/ALN.0b013e3181974fa2 Sun, 2016, Inhibiting NADPH oxidase protects against long-term memory impairment induced by neonatal sevoflurane exposure in mice, Br J Anaesth, 117, 80, 10.1093/bja/aew064 Cabrera, 2017, Caffeine combined with sedative/anesthetic drugs triggers widespread neuroapoptosis in a mouse model of prematurity, J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med, 30, 2734, 10.1080/14767058.2016.1261400 Rizzi, 2008, Clinical anesthesia causes permanent damage to the fetal Guinea pig brain, Brain Pathol, 18, 198, 10.1111/j.1750-3639.2007.00116.x Gentry, 2013, Early developmental exposure to volatile anesthetics causes behavioral defects in Caenorhabditis elegans, Anesth Analg, 116, 185, 10.1213/ANE.0b013e31826d37c5 Slikker, 2007, Ketamine-induced neuronal cell death in the perinatal rhesus monkey, Toxicol Sci, 98, 145, 10.1093/toxsci/kfm084 Zou, 2008, The effects of L-carnitine on the combination of, inhalation anesthetic-induced developmental, neuronal apoptosis in the rat frontal cortex, Neuroscience, 151, 1053, 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2007.12.013 Creeley, 2013, Propofol-induced apoptosis of neurones and oligodendrocytes in fetal and neonatal rhesus macaque brain, Br J Anaesth, 110, i29, 10.1093/bja/aet173 Noguchi, 2017, Isoflurane exposure for three hours triggers apoptotic cell death in neonatal macaque brain, Br J Anaesth, 119, 524, 10.1093/bja/aex123 Deng, 2014, Brain regional vulnerability to anaesthesia-induced neuroapoptosis shifts with age at exposure and extends into adulthood for some regions, Br J Anaesth, 113, 443, 10.1093/bja/aet469 Ing, 2014, Neurodevelopmental outcomes after initial childhood anesthetic exposure between ages 3 and 10 years, J Neurosurg Anesthesiol, 26, 377, 10.1097/ANA.0000000000000121 Ing, 2012, Long-term differences in language and cognitive function after childhood exposure to anesthesia, Pediatrics, 130, e476, 10.1542/peds.2011-3822 Shen, 2013, Selective anesthesia-induced neuroinflammation in developing mouse brain and cognitive impairment, Anesthesiology, 118, 502, 10.1097/ALN.0b013e3182834d77 Amrock, 2015, Long-term effects of single or multiple neonatal sevoflurane exposures on rat hippocampal ultrastructure, Anesthesiology, 122, 87, 10.1097/ALN.0000000000000477 Uemura, 1985, Effects of halothane on synaptogenesis and learning behavior in rats, Exp Neurol, 89, 520, 10.1016/0014-4886(85)90003-2 Smith, 1978, Behavioral effects of exposure to halothane during early development in the rat: sensitive period during pregnancy, Anesthesiology, 49, 319, 10.1097/00000542-197811000-00004 Liu, 2012, Noxious stimulation attenuates ketamine-induced neuroapoptosis in the developing rat brain, Anesthesiology, 117, 64, 10.1097/ALN.0b013e31825ae693 Shu, 2012, Nociceptive stimuli enhance anesthetic-induced neuroapoptosis in the rat developing brain, Neurobiol Dis, 45, 743, 10.1016/j.nbd.2011.10.021 Anand, 2007, Ketamine reduces the cell death following inflammatory pain in newborn rat brain, Pediatr Res, 62, 283, 10.1203/PDR.0b013e3180986d2f Zhao, 2020, The differential effects of isoflurane and sevoflurane on neonatal mice, Sci Rep, 10, 10.1038/s41598-020-76147-6 Useinovic, 2022, Systemic inflammation exacerbates developmental neurotoxicity induced by sevoflurane in neonatal rats, Br J Anaesth, 129, 555, 10.1016/j.bja.2022.05.008 Warner, 2019, Performance on the Operant Test Battery in young children exposed to procedures requiring general anaesthesia: the MASK study, Br J Anaesth, 122, 470, 10.1016/j.bja.2018.12.020 Zaccariello, 2019, Patterns of neuropsychological changes after general anaesthesia in young children: secondary analysis of the Mayo Anesthesia Safety in Kids study, Br J Anaesth, 122, 671, 10.1016/j.bja.2019.01.022 Paule, 2011, Ketamine anesthesia during the first week of life can cause long-lasting cognitive deficits in rhesus monkeys, Neurotoxicol Teratol, 33, 220, 10.1016/j.ntt.2011.01.001 Paule, 1999, Operant test battery performance in children: correlation with IQ, Neurotoxicol Teratol, 21, 223, 10.1016/S0892-0362(98)00045-2 Sun, 2016, Association between a single general anesthesia exposure before age 36 Months and neurocognitive outcomes in later childhood, JAMA, 315, 2312, 10.1001/jama.2016.6967 McCann, 2019, Neurodevelopmental outcome at 5 years of age after general anaesthesia or awake-regional anaesthesia in infancy (GAS): an international, multicentre, randomised, controlled equivalence trial, Lancet, 393, 664, 10.1016/S0140-6736(18)32485-1 Shi, 2018, Epidemiology of general anesthesia prior to age 3 in a population-based birth cohort, Paediatr Anaesth, 28, 513, 10.1111/pan.13359 Bartels, 2018, Estimating pediatric general anesthesia exposure: quantifying duration and risk, Paediatr Anaesth, 28, 520, 10.1111/pan.13391 Sprung, 2012, Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder after early exposure to procedures requiring general anesthesia, Mayo Clin Proc, 87, 120, 10.1016/j.mayocp.2011.11.008 Tsai, 2018, Risk of ADHD after multiple exposures to general anesthesia: a nationwide retrospective cohort study, J Atten Disord, 22, 229, 10.1177/1087054715587094 Song, 2021, Does exposure to general anesthesia increase risk of ADHD for children before age of three?, Front Psychiatr, 12, 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.717093 Ing, 2017, Age at exposure to surgery and anesthesia in children and association with mental disorder diagnosis, Anesth Analg, 125, 1988, 10.1213/ANE.0000000000002423 Reighard, 2022, Anesthetic exposure during childhood and neurodevelopmental outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis, JAMA Netw Open, 5, 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.17427 Ing, 2021, Prospectively assessed neurodevelopmental outcomes in studies of anaesthetic neurotoxicity in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis, Br J Anaesth, 126, 433, 10.1016/j.bja.2020.10.022 Seidman, 2006, Neuropsychological functioning in people with ADHD across the lifespan, Clin Psychol Rev, 26, 466, 10.1016/j.cpr.2006.01.004 Ko, 2014, Exposure to general anesthesia in early life and the risk of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder development: a nationwide, retrospective matched-cohort study, Paediatr Anaesth, 24, 741, 10.1111/pan.12371 Laporta, 2022, Association between exposure of children to general anesthesia and autism spectrum disorder, J Autism Dev Disord, 52, 4301, 10.1007/s10803-021-05305-0 Ko, 2015, Risk of autistic disorder after exposure to general anaesthesia and surgery: a nationwide, retrospective matched cohort study, Eur J Anaesthesiol, 32, 303, 10.1097/EJA.0000000000000130 Ring, 2021, The current role of general anesthesia for cesarean delivery, Curr Anesthesiol Rep, 11, 18, 10.1007/s40140-021-00437-6 Palmer, 2018, Operating room-to-incision interval and neonatal outcome in emergency caesarean section: a retrospective 5-year cohort study, Anaesthesia, 73, 825, 10.1111/anae.14296 Beckmann, 2012, Mode of anaesthetic for category 1 caesarean sections and neonatal outcomes, Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol, 52, 316, 10.1111/j.1479-828X.2012.01457.x Kim, 2019, Comparison between general, spinal, epidural, and combined spinal-epidural anesthesia for cesarean delivery: a network meta-analysis, Int J Obstet Anesth, 37, 5, 10.1016/j.ijoa.2018.09.012 Huberman Samuel, 2019, Exposure to general anesthesia may contribute to the association between cesarean delivery and autism spectrum disorder, J Autism Dev Disord, 49, 3127, 10.1007/s10803-019-04034-9 Sagi-Dain, 2020, Numerous confounders affecting the alleged association between cesarean deliveries under general anesthesia and autism spectrum disorder, J Autism Dev Disord, 50, 688, 10.1007/s10803-019-04247-y Pikwer, 2023, General anesthesia in early childhood and possible association with autism: a population-based matched cohort study, Minerva Anestesiol, 89, 22, 10.23736/S0375-9393.22.16543-0 Coleman, 2017, Isoflurane anesthesia has long-term consequences on motor and behavioral development in infant rhesus macaques, Anesthesiology, 126, 74, 10.1097/ALN.0000000000001383 Useinovic, 2022, Do we have viable protective strategies against anesthesia-induced developmental neurotoxicity?, Int J Mol Sci, 23, 10.3390/ijms23031128 Useinovic, 2022, Novel anesthetics in pediatric practice: is it time?, Curr Opin Anaesthesiol, 35, 425, 10.1097/ACO.0000000000001156