Construction and Validation of a Subjective Scale of Stigma and Discrimination (SISD) for the Gay Men and Transgender Women Population in Chile
Tóm tắt
Recent studies in Chile provide encouraging data on the attitude of the Chilean society toward sexual minorities, although other studies reveal that new ways to express stigma and discrimination toward sexual minorities have emerged. The objective of this study was the construction and validation of a measure to describe and characterize stigma and discrimination toward the gay men and transgender women population in Chile. Two studies were conducted. In study 1, the initial version of a scale, consisting of 147 items, was constructed in a process involving three phases: (a) a theoretical phase, (b) a qualitative phase, and (c) a phase using the original version of our scale. This original version was administered to a non-probabilistic snowball-type sample of 100 gay men (pilot study). After several analyses, the items were selected for the abbreviated version of the scale (SISD). Thus, the scale finally contained 23 items in six dimensions. In study 2, the SISD was administered to a type of RDS for gay men and a non-probabilistic snowball-type sample for transgender women. This study included 437 subjects aged 18–75 years (M = 32.22, SD = 10.22), 325 gay men (74.4 %), and 112 transgender women (25.6 %). The reliability coefficient was 0.89 for the SISD. In addition, there were statistically significant differences in the SISD scores between gay men and transgender women (t
(435) = −2.48, p < 0.05, d = 0.26). Moreover, statistically significant differences were found between gay men and transgender women in three dimensions of the scale: disadvantages in the presence of authorities (t
(435) = −2.83, p < 0.005, d = 0.31); discrimination at work (t
(435) = −3.78, p < 0.005, d = 0.40); and institutional exclusion (t
(434) = −4.25, p < 0.001, d = 0.46). A high percentage of individuals from each group reported victimization and discrimination events due to their condition as gay men and transgender women. Therefore, the SISD is a reliable and valid instrument to measure stigma and discrimination toward the gay men and transgender women population in Chile.
Tài liệu tham khảo
Barrientos, J., Silva, J., Catalán, S., Gómez, F., & Longueira, J. (2010). Discrimination and victimization: parade for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) pride, in Chile. Journal of Homosexuality, 57, 760–775. doi:10.1080/00918369.2010.485880.
Barrientos, J., & Cárdenas, M. (2013). Homofobia y calidad de vida de gay y lesbianas: Una Mirada Psicosocial. Psykhe, 22(1), 3–14. doi:10.7764/psykhe.2013.22.10.
Barrientos, J., Cárdenas, M., Díaz, J., & Muñoz, F. (2012). Derechos, políticas, violencia y diversidad sexual: segunda encuesta marcha por la diversidad sexual—Santiago 2011 [Rights, policies, violence and sexual diversity: second survey—Santiago 2011]. Santiago, Chile: Universidad Católica del Norte/Movimiento por la Diversidad Sexual.
Beyrer, C., Sullivan, P., Sanchez, J., Baral, S. D., Collins, C., Wirtz, A. L., Altman, D., Trapence, G., & Mayer, K. (2013). The global HIV epidemics in men who have sex with men (MSM): time to act. AIDS, 27, 000–000. doi:10.1097/01.aids.0000432449.30239.fe.
Bockting, W. O., Miner, M. H., Swinburne Romine, R. E., Hamilton, A., & Coleman, E. (2013). Stigma, mental health, and resilience in an online sample of the US transgender population. American Journal of Public Health, 103, 943–951. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2013.301241.
Borrillo, D. (2001). Homofobia. [Homophobia]. Barcelona, Spain: Bellaterra.
Cárdenas, M., Barrientos, J., Gómez, F., & Frías-Navarro, D. (2012). Attitudes toward lesbians and gay men and their relationship with sex role in a sample of Chilean university students. International Journal of Sexual Health, 24, 226–236. doi:10.1080/19317611.2012.700687.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
De Santis, J. P. (2009). HIV infection risk factors among male-to-female transgender persons: a review of the literature. Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 20(5), 362–372. doi:10.1016/j.jana.2009.06.005.
Earsnshaw, V., & Chaudoir, S. (2009). From conceptualizing to measuring HIV stigma: a review of HIV stigma mechanism measures. AIDS and Behavior, 13, 1160–1177. doi:10.1007/s10461-009-9593-3.
Genberg, B., Kawichai, S., Chingono, A., Sendah, M., Chariyalersak, A., Konda, K., & Celentano, D. (2008). Assessing HIV/AIDS stigma and discrimination in developing countries. AIDS and Behavior, 12(5), 772–780. doi:10.1007/s10461-007-9340-6.
Goffman, E. (1963). Estigma. La identidad deteriorada. [Stigma: notes on the management of spoiled identity]. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Amorrortu Editores.
Gómez, F., & Barrientos, J. (2012). Efectos del prejuicio sexual en la salud mental de gay y lesbianas en la ciudad de Antofagasta, Chile. Sexualidad, Salud y Sociedad, 10, 100–123.
Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102, 4–27. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.102.1.4.
Grossman, A. H., & D'augelli, A. R. (2006). Transgender youth: invisible and vulnerable. Journal of Homosexuality, 51(1), 111–128. doi:10.1300/J082v51n01_06.
Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Phelan, J. C., & Link, B. G. (2013). Stigma as a fundamental cause of population health inequalities. American Journal of Public Health, 103(5), 813–821. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2012.301069.
Herek, G. M. (2000). The psychology of sexual prejudice. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9, 19–22. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00051.
Institute of Medicine (IOM). (2011). The health of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people: building a foundation for better understanding. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Johnston, L. G., Chen, Y. H., Silva-Santisteban, A., & Raymond, H. F. (2013). An empirical examination of respondent driven sampling design effects among HIV risk groups from studies conducted around the world. AIDS and Behavior, 17(6), 2202–2210. doi:10.1007/s10461-012-0394-8.
Kline, P. (1986). A handbook of test construction. New York: Methuen.
Kline, P. (1994). An easy guide to factor analysis. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Movimiento de Integración y Liberación Homosexual (2013). XI Informe Anual de Derechos Humanos de la Diversidad Sexual en Chile, Hechos 2012. [XI Annual Report of Human Right of sexual Diversity in Chile] Santiago, Chile: Author. Retrieved 10 October 2012 from http://www.movilh.cl/documentacion/XI_Informe_de_DHH_Movilh_Hechos_2012.pdf.
Likert, R. (1932). A technique for the measurement of attitudes. Archives of Psychology, 140, 44–53.
Lingiardi, V., Baiocco, R., & Nardelli, N. (2012). Measure of internalized sexual stigma for lesbians and gay men: a new scale. Journal of Homosexuality, 59(8), 1191–1210. doi:10.1080/00918369.2012.712850.
Mahajan, A., Sayles, J., Patel, V., Remien, R., Ortiz, D., Szekeres, G., & Coates, T. (2008). Stigma in the HIV/AIDS epidemic: a review of the literature and recommendations for the way forward. AIDS, 22(Suppl 2), S67–S79. doi:10.1097/01.aids.0000327438.13291.62.
Martin, J., & Dean, L. (1987). Ego-Dystonic Homosexuality Scale. New York: School of Public Health, Columbia University.
Molero, F., Recio, P., Garcıa-Ael, C., Fuster, M. J., & Sanjuan, P. (2013). Measuring dimensions of perceived discrimination in five stigmatized groups. Social Indicators Research. doi:10.1007/s11205-012-0179-5.
Morales, P., Urosa, B, & Blanco, A. (2003). Construcción de escalas de Actitudes tipo Likert [Construction of Likert attitudes scales]. Madrid: Editorial la Muralla.
Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Educación, La Ciencia y la Cultura, Chile, Ministerio de Salud (ONUSIDA), VIVOPOSITIVO & ASOSIDA (2012). Índice compuesto de estigma y discriminación hacia hombres homosexuales, otros HSH y mujeres transgénero en Chile (ICED): síntesis de estudio [Index of stigma and discrimination towards gay men, MSM and women transgender in Chile: a synthesis]. Santiago, Chile: ONUSIDA, VIVOPOSITIVO, ASOSIDA.
Parker, R. (2012). Stigma, prejudice and discrimination in global public health. Cadernos de Saúde Pública, 28(1), 164–169. doi:10.1590/S0102-311X2012000100017.
Parker, R., & Aggleton, P. (2003). HIV and AIDS-related stigma and discrimination: a conceptual framework and implications for action. Social Science and Medicine, 57(1), 13–24. doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(02)00304-0.
Paz-Bailey, G., Miller, W., Shiraishi, R. W., Jacobson, J. O., Abimbola, T. O., & Chen, S. Y. (2013). Reaching men who have sex with men: a comparison of respondent-driven sampling and time–location sampling in Guatemala City. AIDS and Behavior. doi:10.1007/s10461-013-0589-7.
Pereira, H., & Pereira Leal, I. (2005). Medindo a homofobia internalizada: A validação de um instrumento [A measure to internalized homophobia: validation of a survey]. Análise Psicológica, 3(XXIII), 323–328.
Salganik, M., & Heckathorn, D. (2004). Sampling and estimation in hidden population using respondent-driven sampling. Sociological Methodology, 34(1), 193–239. doi:10.1111/j.0081-1750.2004.00152.x.
Sayles, J., Hays, R., Sarkisian, C., Mahajan, A., Spritzer, K., & Cunningham, W. (2008). Development and psychometric assessment of a multidimensional measure of internalized HIV stigma in a sample of HIV-positive adults. AIDS and Behavior, 12(5), 748–758. doi:10.1007/s10461-008-9375-3.
Silva-Santisteban, A., Raymond, H. F., Salazar, X., Villayzan, J., Leon, S., McFarland, W., & Caceres, C. F. (2012). Understanding the HIV/AIDS epidemic in transgender women of Lima, Peru: results from a sero-epidemiologic study using respondent driven sampling. AIDS and Behavior, 16, 872–881. doi:10.1007/s10461-011-0053-5.
Sjoberg, M. D., Walch, S. E., & Stanny, C. J. (2006). Development and initial psychometric evaluation of the Transgender Adaptation and Integration Measure (TG AIM). International Journal of Transgenderism, 9, 2. doi:10.1300/J485v09n02_05.
Varas Díaz, N., & Neilands, T. B. (2009). Development and validation of a culturally appropriate HIV/AIDS stigma scale for Puerto Rican health professionals in training. AIDS Care, 21(10), 1259–1270. doi:10.1080/09540120902804297.
Walch, S. E., Ngamake, S. T., Francisco, J., Stitt, R. L., & Shingler, K. A. (2012). The Attitudes Toward Transgendered Individuals Scale: psychometric properties. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41, 1283–1291. doi:10.1007/s10508-012-9995-6.
Worthen, M. G. F. (2013). An argument for separate analysis of attitudes toward lesbian, gay, bisexual men, bisexual women, MtF and FtM transgender individuals. Sex Roles, 68(11/12), 703–723. doi:10.1007/s11199-012-0155-1.