So sánh lòng biết ơn và niềm tự hào: bằng chứng từ não bộ và hành vi

Springer Science and Business Media LLC - Tập 22 - Trang 1199-1214 - 2022
Ke Ding1, Jinting Liu1,2,3
1School of Psychology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
2Research Center for Brain Function and Psychological Science /Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Affective and Social Cognitive Science, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
3Shenzhen-Hong Kong Institute of Brain Science-Shenzhen Fundamental Research Institutions, Shenzhen, China

Tóm tắt

Lòng biết ơn và niềm tự hào đều là những cảm xúc tích cực. Tuy nhiên, lòng biết ơn thúc đẩy con người giúp đỡ người khác và xây dựng mối quan hệ, trong khi niềm tự hào thúc đẩy con người theo đuổi thành tựu và xây dựng lòng tự tôn. Mặc dù những kết quả xã hội này rất quan trọng cho sự thích ứng tiến hóa của con người, nhưng cho đến nay, không có nghiên cứu nào so sánh hệ thống lòng biết ơn và niềm tự hào để hiểu lý do và cách chúng có thể thúc đẩy con người một cách khác nhau. Trong bài tổng quan này, chúng tôi đã so sánh lòng biết ơn và niềm tự hào từ nguồn gốc từ, các tiền đề nhận thức, chức năng động cơ, và các vùng não liên quan. Bằng cách tích hợp các bằng chứng từ não bộ và hành vi, chúng tôi đề xuất rằng lòng biết ơn và niềm tự hào chia sẻ một nền tảng thưởng chung, tuy nhiên lòng biết ơn có liên quan nhiều hơn đến lý thuyết về tâm trí, trong khi niềm tự hào có liên quan nhiều hơn đến xử lý tự tham chiếu. Hơn nữa, chúng tôi đề xuất một mô hình thần kinh nhận thức để giải thích động lực trong lòng biết ơn và niềm tự hào dưới khuôn khổ học tập gia tăng.

Từ khóa

#lòng biết ơn #niềm tự hào #tâm lý học xã hội #thần kinh nhận thức #cảm xúc tích cực

Tài liệu tham khảo

Algoe, S. B. (2012). Find, remind, and bind: The functions of gratitude in everyday relationships. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 6(6), 455–469. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2012.00439.x Algoe, Sara B.., Fredrickson, Barbara L.., & Gable, Shelly L.. (2013). The social functions of the emotion of gratitude via expression. Emotion, 13(4), 605. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032701 Algoe, S. B., Gable, S. L., & Maisel, N. C. (2010). It's the little things: Everyday gratitude as a booster shot for romantic relationships. Personal Relationships, 17(2), 217–233. Algoe, Sara B.., Haidt, Jonathan, & Gable, Shelly L.. (2008). Beyond reciprocity: Gratitude and relationships in everyday life. Emotion, 8(3), 425. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.8.3.425. Algoe, S. B., & Haidt, J. (2009). Witnessing excellence in action: The ‘other-praising’emotions of elevation, gratitude, and admiration. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 4(2), 105–127. Alighieri, D. (2003). The divine comedy. J. Ciardi, Trans. New York: New American Library. Bandura, A. J. N. (1997). NY: Freeman. Efficacy: The exercise of control. Bar-Tal, D., Bar-Zohar, Y., Greenberg, M. S., & Hermon, M. (1977). Reciprocity behavior in the relationship between donor and recipient and between harm-doer and victim. Sociometry, 293–298. Bartlett, M. Y., Condon, P., Cruz, J., Baumann, J., & Desteno, D. (2012). Gratitude: Prompting behaviours that build relationships. Cognition & Emotion, 26(1), 2–13. Bartlett, M. Y., & DeSteno, D. (2006). Gratitude and prosocial behavior: Helping when it costs you. Psychological Science, 17(4), 319–325. Belsky, J., Domitrovich, C., & Crnic, K. (1997). Temperament and parenting antecedents of individual differences in three-year-old boys' pride and shame reactions. Child Development, 68(3), 456–466. Blain, B., & Rutledge, R. B. (2020). Momentary subjective well-being depends on learning and not reward. Elife, 9. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.57977 Bouret, S., & Richmond, B. J. (2010). Ventromedial and orbital prefrontal neurons differentially encode internally and externally driven motivational values in monkeys. Journal of Neuroscience, 30(25), 8591–8601. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0049-10.2010 Brown, J. D., & Marshall, M. A. (2001). Self-esteem and emotion: Some thoughts about feelings. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(5), 575–584. Campos, B., Shiota, M. N., Keltner, D., Gonzaga, G. C., & Goetz, J. L. (2013). What is shared, what is different? Core relational themes and expressive displays of eight positive emotions. Cognition and Emotion, 27(1), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2012.683852 Carey, J. R., Clicque, S. H., Leighton, B. A., & Milton, F. (1976). A test of positive reinforcement of customers. Journal of Marketing, 98–100. Carver, C. S., & Johnson, S. L. (2010). Authentic and hubristic pride: Differential relations to aspects of goal regulation, affect, and self-control. Journal of Research in Personality, 44(6), 698–703. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2010.09.004 Chen, L., Wang, Y., Yang, H., & Sun, X. (2020). Emotional warmth and cyberbullying perpetration attitudes in college students: Mediation of trait gratitude and empathy. PLoS One, 15(7), e0235477. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0235477 Chen, Y., Dou, G., & Chen, L. (2021). The basic empathy scale in Chinese college students: Adaptation and psychometric properties of a revised form. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 774199. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.774199 Cheng, J. T., Tracy, J. L., & Henrich, J. (2010). Pride, personality, and the evolutionary foundations of human social status. Evolution and Human Behavior, 31(5), 334–347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2010.02.004 Clark, H. B., Northrop, J. T., & Barkshire, C. T. (1988). The effects of contingent thank-you notes on case managers' visiting residential clients. Education and Treatment of Children, 45–51. Cole, E. J., Barraclough, N. E., & Andrews, T. J. (2019). Reduced connectivity between mentalizing and mirror systems in autism spectrum condition. Neuropsychologia, 122, 88–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018.11.008 D'Argembeau, A. (2013). On the role of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex in self-processing: The valuation hypothesis. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 372 https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00372 Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. Denny, B. T., Kober, H., Wager, T. D., & Ochsner, K. N. (2012). A meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies of self-and other judgments reveals a spatial gradient for mentalizing in medial prefrontal cortex. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 24(8), 1742–1752. Depue, R. A., & Morrone-Strupinsky, J. V. (2005). A neurobehavioral model of affiliative bonding: Implications for conceptualizing a human trait of affiliation. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28(3), 313–350; discussion 350-395. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x05000063 DeSteno, D., Duong, F., Lim, D., & Kates, S. (2019). The grateful don’t cheat: Gratitude as a fount of virtue. Psychological Science, 30(7), 979–988. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797619848351 Dunn, J. R., & Schweitzer, M. E. (2005). Feeling and believing: The influence of emotion on trust. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(5), 736. Emmons, R. A., & McCullough, M. E. (2003). Counting blessings versus burdens: An experimental investigation of gratitude and subjective well-being in daily life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(2), 377. Emmons, R. A., & Shelton, C. M. (2002). Gratitude and the science of positive psychology. Handbook of positive psychology, 18, 459–471. Folkman, S., & Moskowitz, J. T. (2000). Positive affect and the other side of coping. American psychologist, 55(6), 647. Fox, G. R., Kaplan, J., Damasio, H., & Damasio, A. (2015). Neural correlates of gratitude. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1491. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01491 Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. The American Psychologist, 56(3), 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.56.3.218 Fredrickson, B. L. (2013). Positive emotions broaden and build. In advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 47, pp. 1-53). Elsevier. Fredrickson, B. L. (2004a). The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 359(1449), 1367–1378. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2004.1512 Fredrickson, B. L. (2004b). Gratitude, like other positive emotions, broadens and builds. In R. A. Emmons & M. E. McCullough (Eds.), The psychology of gratitude (Vol. 145, pp. 166). Oxford University Press. Freitas, L. B. L., O'Brien, M., Nelson, J. A., & Marcovitch, S. (2012). The understanding of gratitude and theory of mind in 5-year-olds. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica, 25(2), 330–338. Freitas, L. B. L., Silveira, P. G., & Pieta, M. A. M. J. I. J. O. P. A. (2009). A study about the development of gratitude in childhood. Interamerican Journal of Psychology, 43(1), 49–56. Friston, K. J. (2011). Functional and effective connectivity: A review. Brain Connectivity, 1(1), 13–36. Frith, C. D., & Frith, U. (1999). Interacting minds--a biological basis. Science, 286(5445), 1692–1695. Froh, J. J., Miller, D. N., & Snyder, S. F. (2007). Gratitude in children and adolescents: Development, assessment, and school-based intervention. School Psychology Forum. Gardner, M. P., Conroy, J. C., Sanchez, D. C., Zhou, J., & Schoenbaum, G. (2019). Real-time value integration during economic choice is regulated by orbitofrontal cortex. Current Biology, 29(24), 4315–4322. e4314. Gilead, M., Katzir, M., Eyal, T., & Liberman, N. (2016). Neural correlates of processing "self-conscious" vs. "basic" emotions. Neuropsychologia, 81, 207–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.12.009 Gordon, A. M., & Chen, S. (2013). Does power help or hurt? The moderating role of self–other focus on power and perspective-taking in romantic relationships. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39(8), 1097–1110. Gordon, C. L., Arnette, R. A., & Smith, R. E. (2011). Have you thanked your spouse today?: Felt and expressed gratitude among married couples. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(3), 339–343. Grant, A. M., & Gino, F. (2010). A little thanks goes a long way: Explaining why gratitude expressions motivate prosocial behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(6), 946. Happé, F. G., Winner, E., & Brownell, H. (1998). The getting of wisdom: Theory of mind in old age. Developmental Psychology, 34(2), 358–362. Hertenstein, M. J., Holmes, R., McCullough, M., & Keltner, D. (2009). The communication of emotion via touch. Emotion, 9(4), 566. Hertenstein, M. J., Keltner, D., App, B., Bulleit, B. A., & Jaskolka, A. R. (2006). Touch communicates distinct emotions. Emotion, 6(3), 528–533. Hong, Y. J., Park, S., Kyeong, S., & Kim, J. J. (2019). Neural basis of professional pride in the reaction to uniform Wear. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 13, 253. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2019.00253 Hu, X., Zhuang, C., Wang, F., Liu, Y. J., Im, C. H., & Zhang, D. (2019). fNIRS evidence for recognizably different positive emotions. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 13, 120. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2019.00120 Insel, T. R., & Young, L. J. (2001). The neurobiology of attachment. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2(2), 129–136. https://doi.org/10.1038/35053579 Janoff-Bulman, R., & Berger, A. R. (2021). The other side of trauma: Towards a psychology of appreciation. In loss and trauma (pp. 29-44). Routledge. Keren, H., Zheng, C., Jangraw, D. C., Chang, K., Vitale, A., Rutledge, R. B., Pereira, F., Nielson, D. M., & Stringaris, A. (2021). The temporal representation of experience in subjective mood. Elife, 10. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.62051 Karns, C. M., Moore III, W. E., & Mayr, U. (2017). The cultivation of pure altruism via gratitude: A functional MRI study of change with gratitude practice. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 11, 599. Keltner, D., Sauter, D., Tracy, J., & Cowen, A. (2019). Emotional expression: Advances in basic emotion theory. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 1–28. Kini, P., Wong, J., McInnis, S., Gabana, N., & Brown, J. W. (2016). The effects of gratitude expression on neural activity. Neuroimage, 128, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.12.040 Kircher, T. T. J., Senior, C., Phillips, M. L., Rabe-Hesketh, S., Benson, P. J., Bullmore, E. T., Brammer, M., Simmons, A., Bartels, M., & David, A. S. (2001). Recognizing one's own face. Cognition, 78(1), B1–B15. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-0277(00)00104-9 Kong, F., He, Q., Liu, X., Chen, X., Wang, X., & Zhao, J. (2018). Amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations during resting state differentially predicts authentic and hubristic pride. Journal of Personality, 86(2), 213–219. Kriegeskorte, N., & Kievit, R. A. (2013). Representational geometry: Integrating cognition, computation, and the brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 17(8), 401–412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2013.06.007 Kriegeskorte, N., Mur, M., & Bandettini, P. (2008). Representational similarity analysis - connecting the branches of systems neuroscience. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 2, 4–4. https://doi.org/10.3389/neuro.06.004.2008 Kringelbach, M. L. (2005). The human orbitofrontal cortex: Linking reward to hedonic experience. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 6(9), 691–702. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1747 Lambert, N. M., Clark, M. S., Durtschi, J., Fincham, F. D., & Graham, S. M. (2010). Benefits of expressing gratitude: Expressing gratitude to a partner changes one’s view of the relationship. Psychological Science, 21(4), 574–580. Leary, M. R. (2007). Motivational and emotional aspects of the self. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 317–344. Leary, M. R., & Tangney, J. P. (2011). Handbook of self and identity. Guilford Press. Lewis, A., Alessandri, S. M., & Sullivan, M. W. (1992). Differences in shame and pride as a function of children's gender and task difficulty. Child Development, 63(3), 630–638. Lewis, R. R., Brown, R., Roberts, N., & Dunbar, R. I. (2011). Ventromedial prefrontal volume predicts understanding of others and social network size. Neuroimage, 57(4), 1624–1629. Liu, G., Cui, Z., Yu, H., Rotshtein, P., Zhao, F., Wang, H., Peng, K., & Sui, J. (2020). Neural responses to intention and benefit appraisal are critical in distinguishing gratitude and joy. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 7864. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-64720-y Liu, G., Zeng, G., Wang, F., Rotshtein, P., Peng, K., & Sui, J. (2018). Praising others differently: Neuroanatomical correlates to individual differences in trait gratitude and elevation. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 13(12), 1225–1234. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsy093 Maddock, R. J., Garrett, A. S., & Buonocore, M. H. (2001). Remembering familiar people: The posterior cingulate cortex and autobiographical memory retrieval. Neuroscience, 104(3), 667–676. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0306-4522(01)00108-7 Manokara, K., Uri, M., Fischer, A., & Sauter, D. (2021). Do people agree on how positive emotions are expressed? A survey of four emotions and five modalities across 11 cultures. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 45(4), 601–632. Matthias, S., Joaquim, R., Markus, A., Fabio, R., & Josef, P. (2014). Fractionating theory of mind: A meta-analysis of functional brain imaging studies. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 42, 9–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.01.009 McAdams, D. P., & Bauer, J. J. (2004). Gratitude in modern life: Its manifestations and development. The Psychology of Gratitude, 81–99. McCullough, M. E., Emmons, R. A., & Tsang, J.-A. (2002). The grateful disposition: A conceptual and empirical topography. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(1), 112. McCullough, M. E., Kilpatrick, S. D., Emmons, R. A., & Larson, D. B. (2001). Is gratitude a moral affect? Psychological Bulletin, 127(2), 249. McGovern, L., Ditzian, J. L., & Taylor, S. P. (1975). The effect of one positive reinforcement on helping with cost. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 5(5), 421–423. Mercadante, E. J., & Tracy, J. L. (2021). A paradox of pride: Hubristic pride predicts strategic dishonesty in response to status threats. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0001158. Mercadante, E., Witkower, Z., & Tracy, J. L. (2021). The psychological structure, social consequences, function, and expression of pride experiences. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 39, 130–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2021.03.010 Moll, J., Krueger, F., Zahn, R., Pardini, M., de Oliveira-Souza, R., & Grafman, J. (2006). Human fronto-mesolimbic networks guide decisions about charitable donation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103(42), 15623–15628. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0604475103 Nelson, J. A., de Lucca Freitas, L. B., O'Brien, M., Calkins, S. D., Leerkes, E. M., & Marcovitch, S. (2013). Preschool-aged children's understanding of gratitude: Relations with emotion and mental state knowledge. The British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 31, 42–56. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-835X.2012.02077.x Northoff, G., & Bermpohl, F. (2004). Cortical midline structures and the self. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8(3), 102–107. O'Doherty, J. P., Dayan, P., Friston, K., Critchley, H., & Dolan, R. J. (2003). Temporal difference models and reward-related learning in the human brain. Neuron, 38(2), 329–337. Oriol, X., Unanue, J., Miranda, R., Amutio, A., & Bazán, C. (2020). Self-transcendent aspirations and life satisfaction: The moderated mediation role of gratitude considering conditional effects of affective and cognitive empathy. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 2105. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02105 Padoa-Schioppa, C., & Assad, J. A. (2008). The representation of economic value in the orbitofrontal cortex is invariant for changes of menu. Nature Neuroscience, 11(1), 95–102. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn2020 Pang, Y., Song, C., & Ma, C. (2022). Effect of different types of empathy on prosocial behavior: Gratitude as mediator. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 768827. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.768827 Pekrun, R., Elliot, A. J., & Maier, M. A. (2009). Achievement goals and achievement emotions: Testing a model of their joint relations with academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(1), 115. Pessiglione, M., & Daunizeau, J. (2021). Bridging across functional models: The OFC as a value-making neural network. Behavioral Neuroscience, 135(2), 277. Pessiglione, M., Seymour, B., Flandin, G., Dolan, R. J., & Frith, C. D. (2006). Dopamine-dependent prediction errors underpin reward-seeking behaviour in humans. Nature, 442(7106), 1042–1045. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05051 Platek, S. M., & Kemp, S. M. (2009). Is family special to the brain? An event-related fMRI study of familiar, familial, and self-face recognition. Neuropsychologia, 47(3), 849–858. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.12.027 Poelker, K. E., Gibbons, J. L., & Maxwell, C. A. (2019). The relation of perspective-taking to gratitude and envy among Guatemalan adolescents. International Perspectives in Psychology, 8(1), 20–37. Poelker, K. E., & Kuebli, J. E. (2014). Does the thought count? Gratitude understanding in elementary school students. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 175(5), 431–448. Premack, D., & Woodruff, G. (1978). Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1(4), 515–526. Rachel, L. C. M., & Louise, H. P. (2015). The overlapping relationship between emotion perception and theory of mind. Neuropsychologia, 70, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.02.018 Rind, B., & Bordia, P. (1995). Effect of server's “thank you” and personalization on restaurant tipping. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 25(9), 745–751. Ross, D. (1956). Aristotle: the Nicomachean ethics. Philosophy, 31(116). Roth, L., Kaffenberger, T., Herwig, U., & Brühl, A. B. (2014). Brain activation associated with pride and shame. Neuropsychobiology, 69(2), 95–106. Rotkirch, A., Lyons, M., David-Barrett, T., & Jokela, M. (2014). Gratitude for help among adult friends and siblings. Evolutionary Psychology, 12(4), 147470491401200401. https://doi.org/10.1177/147470491401200401 Rutledge, R. B., Skandali, N., Dayan, P., & Dolan, R. J. (2014). A computational and neural model of momentary subjective well-being. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(33), 12252–12257. Sasaki, E., Jia, L., Lwa, H. Y., & Goh, M. T. (2020). Gratitude inhibits competitive behaviour in threatening interactions. Cognition and Emotion, 34(6), 1097–1111. Saxe, R., & Kanwisher, N. (2003). People thinking about thinking people: The role of the temporo-parietal junction in “theory of mind”. Neuroimage, 19(4), 1835–1842. Schilbach, L., Timmermans, B., Reddy, V., Costall, A., Bente, G., Schlicht, T., & Vogeley, K. (2013). Toward a second-person neuroscience. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 36, 393–414. Schultz, W. (2016). Dopamine reward prediction error coding. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 18(1), 23. Sescousse, G., Redouté, J., & Dreher, J.-C. (2010). The architecture of reward value coding in the human orbitofrontal cortex. Journal of Neuroscience, 30(39), 13095. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3501-10.2010 Singer, T., Seymour, B., O'Doherty, J., Kaube, H., Dolan, R. J., & Frith, C. D. (2004). Empathy for pain involves the affective but not sensory components of pain. Science, 303(5661), 1157–1162. Shariff, A. F., & Tracy, J. L. (2009). Knowing who’s boss: Implicit perceptions of status from the nonverbal expression of pride. Emotion, 9(5), 631. Shi, M., & Du, T. (2020). Associations of emotional intelligence and gratitude with empathy in medical students. BMC Medical Education, 20(1), 1–8. Shi, Y., Chung, J. M., Cheng, J. T., Tracy, J. L., Robins, R. W., Chen, X., & Zheng, Y. (2015). Cross-cultural evidence for the two-facet structure of pride. Journal of Research in Personality, 55, 61–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2015.01.004 Shoshani, A., Aharon-Dvir, O., Hain, D., & Yaffe, A. (2021). Situational determinants of young children’s gratitude: The effects of perceived intentionality and the value of the benefit on gratitude and prosocial behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 121(4), 914–932. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000384 Shoshani, A., De-Leon Lendner, K., Nissensohn, A., Lazarovich, G., & Aharon-Dvir, O. (2020). Grateful and kind: The prosocial function of gratitude in young children’s relationships. Developmental Psychology, 56(6), 1135–1148. Simon-Thomas, E. R., Godzik, J., Castle, E., Antonenko, O., Ponz, A., Kogan, A., & Keltner, D. J. (2012). An fMRI study of caring vs self-focus during induced compassion and pride. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 7(6), 635–648. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsr045 Smith, C. A., Tong, E. M., & Ellsworth, P. C. (2014). The differentiation of positive emotional experience as viewed through the lens of appraisal theory. Handbook of positive emotions, 11–27. Stanculescu, E. (2012). The self-conscious emotion of pride as mediator between self-esteem and positive affect. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 33, 263–267. Stolz, D. S., Müller-Pinzler, L., Krach, S., & Paulus, F. M. (2020). Internal control beliefs shape positive affect and associated neural dynamics during outcome valuation. Nature Communications, 11(1), 1230. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-14800-4 Sutton, R. S., & Barto, A. G. (2018). Reinforcement learning: An introduction. MIT press. Takahashi, H., Matsuura, M., Koeda, M., Yahata, N., Suhara, T., Kato, M., & Okubo, Y. (2007). Brain activations during judgments of positive self-conscious emotion and positive basic emotion: Pride and joy. Cerebral Cortex, 18(4), 898–903. Tamir, D. I., & Mitchell, J. P. (2012). Disclosing information about the self is intrinsically rewarding. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109(21), 8038–8043. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1202129109 Tesser, A., Gatewood, R., & Driver, M. (1968). Some determinants of gratitude. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 9(3), 233. Tiedens, L. Z., Ellsworth, P. C., & Mesquita, B. (2000). Sentimental stereotypes: Emotional expectations for high-and low-status group members. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(5), 560–575. Tracy, J. L., Cheng, J. T., Robins, R. W., & Trzesniewski, K. H. (2009). Authentic and hubristic pride: The affective core of self-esteem and narcissism. Self and Identity, 8(2-3), 196–213. Tracy, J. L., & Matsumoto, D. (2008). The spontaneous expression of pride and shame: Evidence for biologically innate nonverbal displays. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105(33), 11655–11660 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2575323/pdf/zpq11655.pdf Tracy, J. L., & Robins, R. W. (2004a). Putting the self into self-conscious emotions: A theoretical model. Psychological Inquiry, 15(2), 103–125. Tracy, J. L., & Robins, R. W. (2004b). Show your pride: Evidence for a discrete emotion expression. Psychological Science, 15(3), 194–197. Tracy, J. L., & Robins, R. W. (2007a). Emerging insights into the nature and function of pride. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(3), 147–150. Tracy, J. L., & Robins, R. W. (2007b). The psychological structure of pride: A tale of two facets. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(3), 506. Tracy, J. L., & Robins, R. W. (2008). The automaticity of emotion recognition. Emotion, 8(1), 81. Tracy, J. L., Shariff, A. F., & Cheng, J. T. (2010). A naturalist’s view of pride. Emotion Review, 2(2), 163–177. Tsang, J.-A. (2006). Gratitude and prosocial behaviour: An experimental test of gratitude. Cognition & Emotion, 20(1), 138–148. van der Meer, L., Costafreda, S., Aleman, A., & David, A. S. (2010). Self-reflection and the brain: A theoretical review and meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies with implications for schizophrenia. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 34(6), 935–946. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.12.004 Villano, W. J., Otto, A. R., Ezie, C. E. C., Gillis, R., & Heller, A. S. (2020). Temporal dynamics of real-world emotion are more strongly linked to prediction error than outcome. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 149(9), 1755–1766. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000740 Watkins, P. C. (2014). Gratitude and the good life. Springer. Watkins, P. C., Woodward, K., Stone, T., & Kolts, R. L. (2003). Gratitude and happiness: Development of a measure of gratitude, and relationships with subjective well-being. Social Behavior and Personality, 31(5), 431–452. Weidman, A. C., Tracy, J. L., & Elliot, A. J. (2016). The benefits of following your pride: Authentic pride promotes achievement. Journal of Personality, 84(5), 607–622. Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. Psychological Review, 92(4), 548–573. Weiner, B., Russell, D., & Lerman, D. (1979). The cognition–emotion process in achievement-related contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(7), 1211–1220. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.37.7.1211 Will, G. J., Moutoussis, M., Womack, P. M., Bullmore, E. T., Goodyer, I. M., Fonagy, P., Jones, P. B., Rutledge, R. B., & Dolan, R. J. (2020). Neurocomputational mechanisms underpinning aberrant social learning in young adults with low self-esteem. Translational Psychiatry, 10(1), 96. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-020-0702-4 Will, G. J., Rutledge, R. B., Moutoussis, M., & Dolan, R. J. (2017). Neural and computational processes underlying dynamic changes in self-esteem. Elife, 6. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.28098 Williams, L. A., & DeSteno, D. (2008). Pride and perseverance: The motivational role of pride. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(6), 1007. Williams, L. A., & DeSteno, D. (2009). Pride: Adaptive social emotion or seventh sin? Psychological Science, 20(3), 284–288. Witkower, Z., Mercadante, E., & Tracy, J. L. (2022). The Chicken and Egg of Pride and Social Rank. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 13(2), 382–389. https://doi.org/10.1177/19485506211023619 Wood, A. M., Brown, G. D., & Maltby, J. (2011). Thanks, but I'm used to better: A relative rank model of gratitude. Emotion, 11(1), 175. Wood, A. M., Froh, J. J., & Geraghty, A. W. (2010). Gratitude and well-being: A review and theoretical integration. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(7), 890–905. Wood, A. M., Joseph, S., & Maltby, J. (2008a). Gratitude uniquely predicts satisfaction with life: Incremental validity above the domains and facets of the five factor model. Personality and Individual Differences, 45(1), 49–54. Wood, A. M., Maltby, J., Stewart, N., & Joseph, S. (2008b). Conceptualizing gratitude and appreciation as a unitary personality trait. Personality and Individual Differences, 44(3), 621–632. Wood, A. M., Maltby, J., Stewart, N., Linley, P. A., & Joseph, S. (2008c). A social-cognitive model of trait and state levels of gratitude. Emotion, 8(2), 281. Xia, M., Wang, J., & He, Y. (2013). BrainNet viewer: A network visualization tool for human brain connectomics. PLoS One, 8(7), e68910. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0068910 Xiong, W., Gao, X., He, Z., Yu, H., Liu, H., & Zhou, X. (2020). Affective evaluation of others' altruistic decisions under risk and ambiguity. Neuroimage, 218, 116996. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.116996 Xu, Z., Zhu, R., Zhang, S., Zhang, S., Liang, Z., Mai, X., & Liu, C. (2022). Mortality salience enhances neural activities related to guilt and shame when recalling the past. Cerebral Cortex. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhac004 Yu, H., Cai, Q., Shen, B., Gao, X., & Zhou, X. (2017). Neural substrates and social consequences of interpersonal gratitude: Intention matters. Emotion, 17(4), 589–601. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000258 Yu, H., Gao, X., Zhou, Y., & Zhou, X. (2018). Decomposing gratitude: Representation and integration of cognitive antecedents of gratitude in the brain. Journal of Neuroscience, 38(21), 4886–4898 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6596125/pdf/zns4886.pdf Zahn, R., Garrido, G., Moll, J., & Grafman, J. (2014). Individual differences in posterior cortical volume correlate with proneness to pride and gratitude. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 9(11), 1676–1683. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nst158 Zahn, R., Moll, J., Paiva, M., Garrido, G., Krueger, F., Huey, E. D., & Grafman, J. (2009). The neural basis of human social values: Evidence from functional MRI. Cerebral Cortex, 19(2), 276–283. Zhang, L., Lengersdorff, L., Mikus, N., Gläscher, J., & Lamm, C. (2020). Using reinforcement learning models in social neuroscience: Frameworks, pitfalls and suggestions of best practices. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 15(6), 695–707. Zhao, S., Uono, S., Li, C., Yoshimura, S., & Toichi, M. (2018). The influence of self-referential processing on attentional orienting in frontoparietal networks. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 12(199). https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2018.00199 Zinck, A. (2011). Self-referential emotion. In Emotions hold the self together (pp. 105–133). Mentis.