Comparative Pharmacokinetics of Antiviral Nucleoside Analogues

Ahluwalia G, Cooney DA, Mitsuya H, Fridland A, Flora KP, et al. Initial studies on the cellular pharmacology of 2′,3′-dideoxyinosine, an inhibitor of HIV infectivity. Biochemical Pharmacology 36: 3797–3800, 1987 Anderson BD, Wugant NB, Xiang T, Waugh WA, Stella VJ. Preformulation solubility and kinetic studies of 2′,3′-dideoxypurine nucleosides: potential anti-AIDS agents. International Journal of Pharmacokinetics 45: 27–37, 1988 Aronoff GR, Szwed JJ, Nelson RL, Marcus EL, Kleit SA. Hypoxanthine-arabinoside pharmacokinetics after adenine arabinoside administration to a patient with renal failure. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 18: 212–214, 1980 Baba M, Pauwels R, Balzarini J, Herdewijn P, DeClercq E, et al. Ribavirin antagonises inhibitory effects of pyrimidine 2′,3′-dieoxynucleosides but enhances inhibitory effects of purine 2′3′-dideoxynucleosides on replication of human immunodeficiency virus in vitro. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 31: 1613–1617, 1987 Balfour HH. Management of cytomegalovirus disease with antiviral drugs. Reviews of Infectious Disease 12: S849–860, 1990 Balis FM, Pizzo PA, Butler KM, Hawkins ME, Brouwers P, et al. Clinical Pharmacology of 2′,3′-dideoxyinosine in human immunodeficiency virus-infected children. Journal of Infectious Diseases 165: 99–104, 1992 Balis FM, Pizzo PA, Eddy J, Wilfert C, McKinney R, et al. Pharmacokinetics of zidovudine administered intravenously and orally in children with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Journal of Pediatrics 114: 880–884, 1989a Balis FM, Pizzo PA, Murphy RF, Eddy J, Jarosinski PF, et al. The pharmacokinetics of zidovudine administered by continuous infusion in children. Annals of Internal Medicine 110: 279–285, 1989b Balzarini J, Cooney D, Dalal M, Kang GJ, Cupp JE, et al. 2′,3′-Dideoxycytidine: Regulation of its metabolism and anti-retroviral potency by natural pyrimidine nucleosides and by inhibitors of pyrimidine nucleotide synthesis. Molecular Pharmacology 32: 798–806, 1987 Biron KK, Stanat SC, Sorrell JB, Fyfe JA, Keller PM, et al. Metabolic activation of the nucleoside analog 9-{[2-hydroxy-l-hydroxymethyl)ethoxy}guanine in human diploid fibroblasts infected with human cytomegalovirus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 82: 2473–2477, 1985 Blum MR, Liao SH, deMiranda P. Overview of acyclovir pharmacokinetic disposition in adults and children. American Journal of Medicine 73 (Suppl. A): 186–192, 1982 Blum MR, Liao SHT, Good SS, deMiranda P. Pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of zidovudine in humans. American Journal of Medicine 85 (Suppl. 2A): 189–194, 1988 Boehme RE. Phosphorylation of the antiviral precursor 9-(1,3-dihydroxy-2-propoxymethyl)guanine monophosphate by guanylate kinase isozymes. Journal of Biological Chemistry 259: 12346–12349, 1984 Boelaert J, Schurgers M, Daneels R, Van Landuyt HW, Weatherly BC. Multiple dose pharmacokinetics of intravenous acyclovir in patients on continuous peritoneal dialysis. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 20: 69–76, 1987 Brigden D, Bye A, Fowle ASE. Human pharmacokinetics of acyclovir (an antiviral agent) following rapid intravenous injection. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 7: 399–404, 1981 Bristol-Myers Squibb Co. Videx package insert. New York, New York, 1991 Broder S. Pharmacodynamics of 2′,3′-dideoxycytidine: an inhibitor of human immunodeficiency virus. American Journal of Medicine 88 (Suppl. 5B): 2S–7S, 1990 Buchanan RA, Kinkel A, Alford CA, Whitley RJ. Plasma levels and urinary excretion of vidarabine after repeated dosing. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 27: 690–696, 1980 Burgess ED, Gill MJ. Intraperitoneal administration of acyclovir in patients receiving continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 30: 997–1000, 1990 Burroughs Wellcome Co. Zovirax package insert. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, 1990 Butler KM, Husson RN, Balis FM, Browers P, Eddy J, et al. Dideoxyinosine in children with symptomatic human immunodeficiency virus infection. New England Journal of Medicine 324: 137–144, 1991 Catlin DH, Smith RA, Samuels AI. 14C-Ribavirin: distribution and pharmacokinetic studies in rats, baboons, and man. In Smith & Kirkpatrick (Eds) Ribavirin: a broad spectrum antiviral agent, pp. 83–98, Academic Press Inc., New York, 1980 Chavanet P, Lokiec F, Portier H. Meningeal diffusion of high doses of acyclovir given with probenecid. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 26: 294–295, 1990 Chen CH, Cheng YC. Delayed cytotoxicity and selective loss of mitochondrial DNA in cells treated with the anti-human immunodeficiency virus compound 2′,3′-dideoxycytidine. Journal of Biological Chemistry 264: 11934–11937, 1989 Chen CH, Cheng YC. The role of cytoplasmic deoxycytidine kinase in the mitochondrial effects of the anti-human immunodeficiency virus compound, 2′,3′-deoxycytidine. Journal of Biological Chemistry 267: 2856–2859, 1992 Cload PA. A review of the pharmacokinetics of zidovudine in man. Journal of Infection 18: 15–21, 1989 Collins JM, Unadkat JD. Clinical pharmacokinetics of zidovudine: an overview of current data. Clinical Pharmacokinetics 17: 1–9, 1989 Connor J. Ribavirin pharmacokinetics. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 9: S91–S92, 1990 Cooley TP, Kunches LM, Saunders CA, Ritter JK, Perkins CJ, et al. Once-daily administration of 2′,3′-dideoxyinosine (ddI) in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome or AIDS-related complex: results of a Phase I trial. New England Journal of Medicine 322: 1340–1345, 1990 Cooney DA, Ahluwalla G, Mitsuya H, Fridland A, Johnson MA, et al. Initial studies on the cellular pharmacology of 2′,3′-dideoxyadenosine, an inhibitor of HTLV-III infectivity. Biochemical Pharmacology 36: 1765–1768, 1987 Cooney DA, Dalal M, Mitsuya H, McMahon JB, Nadkarni M, et al. Initial studies on the cellular pharmacology of 2′,3′-dideoxycytidine, an inhibitor of HTLV-III infectivity. Biochemical Pharmacology 35: 2065–2068, 1986 Crumpacker C, Bubley G, Lucey D, Hussey S, Connor J, et al. Ribavirin enters cerebrospinal fluid. Lancet 2: 45–46, 1986 Crumpacker CS, Schnipper LE, Zaia JA, Levin MJ. Growth inhibition of herpesviruses isolated from human infections. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 15: 642–645, 1979 Davidson RL, Kaufman ER, Crumpacker CS, Schnipper LE. Inhibition of herpes simplex virus transformed and nontrans-formed cells by acycloguanosine: mechanisms of uptake and toxicity. Virology 113: 9–19, 1981 deMiranda P, Blum MR. Pharmacokinetics of acyclovir after intravenous and oral administration. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 12 (Suppl. B): 29–37, 1983 deMiranda P, Good SS, Laskin OL, Krasny HC, Connor JD, et al. Disposition of intravenous radioactive acyclovir. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 30: 662–672, 1981 deMiranda P, Good SS, Yarchoan R, Thomas RV, Blum MR, et al. Alteration of zidovudine pharmacokinetics by probenecid in patients with AIDS or AIDS-related complex. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 46: 494–500, 1989 Deray G, Diquet B, Martinez F, Vidal AM, Petitclerc T, et al. Pharmacokinetics of zidovudine in a patient on maintenance hemodialysis. New England Journal of Medicine 319: 1606–1607, 1988 Derse D, Cheng YC, Furman PA, St Clair MH, Elion GB. Inhibition of purified human and herpes simplex virus-induced DNA polymerases by 9-(2-hydroxythoxymethyl)guanine triphosphate. Journal of Biological Chemistry 256: 11447–11451, 1981 Dorsky DI, Crumpacker CS. Drugs five years later: acyclovir. Annals of Internal Medicine 107: 859–874, 1987 Drew RH, Weller S, Gallis HA, Walmer KA, Bartlett JA, et al. Bioequivalence assessment of zidovudine (Retrovir) syrup, solution, and capsule formulations in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 33: 1801–1803, 1989 Drusano GL, Yuen GJ, Morse GD, Cooley TP, Seidlin M, et al. Impact of bioavailability on the determination of maximal tolerated dose of 2′,3′-dideoxyinosine (MTD) in Phase I trials. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 36: 1280–1283, 1992 Fischl MA, Richman DD, Griceo MH, Gottlieb MS, Volberding PA, et al. The efficacy of azidothymidine (AZT) in the treatment of patients with AIDS and AIDS-related comples. New England Journal of Medicine 317: 185–191, 1987 Fischl MA, Richman DD, Hansen N, Collier AC, Carey JY, et al. The safety and efficacy of zidovudine (AZT) in the treatment of subjects with mildly symptomatic human immunodeficiency virus type I (HIV) infection: a double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Annals of Internal Medicine 112: 727–737, 1990 Fletcher C, Sawchuck R, Chinnock B, De Miranda P, Balfour HH. Human pharmacokinetics of the antiviral drug DHPG. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 40: 281–286, 1986 Freidman HM, Grasela T. Adenine arabinoside and allopurinol-possible adverse drug interaction. New England Journal of Medicine 304: 423, 1981 Freitas VR, Smee DF, Chernow M, Boehme R, Matthews TR. Activity of 9-(1,3-dihydroxy-2-propoxymethyl)guanine compared with that of acyclovir against human, monkey, and rodent cytomegaloviruses. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 28: 240–245, 1985 Frenkel LM, Brown ZA, Bryson YJ, Corey L, Unadkat JD, et al. Pharmacokinetics of acyclovir in the term pregnancy and neonate. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 164: 569–576, 1991 Furman PA, Fyfe JS, St. Clair MH, Weinhold K, Rideout JL, et al. Phosphorylation of 3′-azido-3′-deoxythymidine and selective interaction of the 5′-triphosphate with human immunodeficiency virus reverse transcriptase. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 83: 8333–8337, 1986 Furman PA, McGuirt PV, Keller PM, Fyfe JA, Elion GB. Inhibition by acyclovir of cell growth and DNA synthesis of cells biochemically transformed with herpesvirus genetic information. Virology 102: 420–430, 1980 Furman PA, St Clair MH, Fyfe JA, Rideout JL, Keller PM, et al. Inhibition of herpes simplex virus-induced DNA polymerase activity and viral DNA replication by 9-(2-hydroxyethoxy-methyl)guanine and its triphosphate. Journal of Virology 32: 72–77, 1979 Gillet JY, Garraffo R, Abrar D, Bongain A, Lapalus P, et al. Fetoplacental passage of zidovudine. Lancet 1: 269–270, 1989 Gitterman SR, Drusano GL, Egorin MJ, Standford HC. Population pharmacokinetics of zidovudine (AZT). Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 48: 161–167, 1990 Glazko AJ, Chang T, Drach JC. Species differences in the metabolic disposition of adenine arabinoside. In Pavan-Langston et al. (Eds) Adenine arabinoside: an antiviral agent, pp. 197–204, Raven Press, New York, 1975 Gnann JW, Barton NH, Whitley RJ. Acyclovir: mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics, safety and clinical applications. Pharmacotherapy 5: 275–283, 1983 Good SS, Reynolds DJ, deMiranda P. Simultaneous quantification of zidovudine and its glucuronide in serum by high-performance liquid chromatography. Journal of Chromatography 431: 123–133, 1988 Granich GG, Eveland MR, Krogstad DJ. Fluorescence polarization immunoassay for zidovudine. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 33: 1275–1279, 1989 Gustavson LE, Fukuda EK, Rubio FA, Dunton AW. A pilot study of the bioavailabilty and pharmacokinetics of 2′3′-dideoxycytyidine in patients with AIDS or AIDS-related complex. Journal of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndromes 3: 28–31, 1990 Hartman NR, Yarchoan R, Pluda JM, Thomas RV, Marczyk KS, et al. Pharmacokinetics of 2′,3′-dideoxyadenosine and 2′,3′-di-deoxyinosine in patients with severe acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 47: 647–654, 1990 Hartman NR, Yarchoan R, Pluda JM, Thomas RV, Marczyk KS, et al. Pharmacokinetics of 2′,3′-dideoxyinosine in patients with severe human immunodeficiency virus infection II: the effects of different oral formulations and the presence of other medications. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 50: 278–285, 1991 Henry K, Chinnock BJ, Quinn RP, Fletcher CV, deMiranda P, et al. Concurrent zidovudine levels in semen and serum determined by radioimmunoassay in patients with AIDS or AIDS-related complex. Journal of the American Medical Association 259: 3023–3026, 1988 Jacobson MA, deMiranda P, Cederberg DM, Burnette T, Cobb E, et al. Human pharmacokinetics and tolerance of oral ganciclovir. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 31: 1251–1254, 1987 Johnson MA, Ahluwalia G, Connelly MC, Cooney DA, Broder S, et al. Metabolic pathways for the activation of the anti-retroviral agent 2′,3′-dideoxyadenosine in human lymphoid cells. Journal of Biological Chemistry 263: 15354–15358, 1988 Johnson MA, Fridland A. Phosphorylation of 2′,3′-dideoxyinosine by cytosolic 5′-nucleotidase of human lymphoid cells. Molecular Pharmacology 35: 291–295, 1989 Kahn JO, Lagakos SW, Richman DD, Cross A, Pettinelli C, et al. A controlled trial comparing continued zidovudine with didanosine in human immunodeficiency virus infection. New England Journal of Medicine 327: 581–587, 1992 Keller PM, Fyfe JA, Beauchamp L. Enzymatic phosphorylation of acyclic nucleoside analogs and correlations with antiherpetic activities. Biochemical Pharmacology 30: 3071–3077, 1981 Kelly JA, Litterst CL, Roth JS, Vistica DT, Poplack DG, et al. The disposition and metabolism of 2′3′-dideoxycytidine, an in vitro inhibitor of human T-lymphotrophic virus type III infectivity, in mice and monkeys. Drug Metabolism and Disposition 15: 595–601, 1987 Kinkel AW, Buchanan RA. Human Pharmacology. In Pavan-Langston et al. (Eds) Adenine arabinoside: an antiviral agent, pp. 197–204, Raven Press, New York, 1975 Klecker RW, Collins JM, Yarchoan R, Thomas R, Jenkins JF, et al. Plasma and cerebrospinal fluid pharmacokinetics of 3′-azido-3′-deoxythymidine: a novel pyrimidine analog with potential application for the treatment of patients with AIDS and related diseases. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 41: 407–412, 1987 Klecker RW, Collins JM, Yarchoan RC, Thomas R, McAtee N, et al. Pharmacokinetics of 2′,3′-dideoxycytidine in patients with AIDS and related disorders. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 28: 837–842, 1988 Knupp CA, Shyu WC, Dolin R, Valentine FT, McLaren C, et al. Pharmacokinetics of didanosine in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome complex. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 49: 523–535, 1991 Knupp CA, Graziano FM, Dixon RM, Barbhaiya RH. Pharmacokinetic-interaction study of didanosine and ranitidine in patients seropositive for human immunodeficiency virus. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 36: 2075–2079, 1992 Koenig S, Gendelmen HE, Orenstein JM, Del Canto ML, Pezeshkpour GH, et al. Detection of AIDS virus in macrophages in brain tissue from AIDS patients with encephalopathy. Science 233: 1089–1093, 1986 Kornhauser DM, Hendrix CW, Nerhood LJ, Petty BG, Woods AS, et al. Probenecid and zidovudine metabolism. Lancet 2: 473–475, 1989 Kramer TH, Gaar GG, Ray CG, Minnich L, Copeland JG, et al. Hemodialysis clearance of intravenously administered ribavirin. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 34: 489–490, 1990 Krasny HC, Liao SH, de Miranda P. Influence of hemodialysis on acyclovir pharmacokinetics in patients with chronic renal failure. American Journal of Medicine 73 (Suppl. A): 202–204, 1982 Lake KD, Fletcher CV, Love KR, Brown DC, Joyce LD, et al. Ganciclovir pharmacokinetics during renal impairment. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 32: 1899–1900, 1988 Lambert JS, Seidlin M, Reichman RC, Plank CS, Laverty M, et al. 2′,3′-dideoxyinosine (ddI) in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome or AIDS-related complex. New England Journal of Medicine 322: 1333–1340, 1990 Langtry HD, Campoli-Richards DM. Zidovudine: a review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties, and therapeutic efficacy. Drugs 37: 408–450, 1989 Larder BA, Darby G, Richman DD. HIV with reduced sensitivity to zidovudine (AZT) isolated during prolonged therapy. Science 243: 1731–1734, 1989 Laskin OL, de Miranda P, King DH, Page DA, Longstreth JA, et al. Effects of probenecid on the pharmacokinetics and elimination of acyclovir in humans. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 21: 804–807, 1982a Laskin OL, Longstreth JA, Hart CC, Scavuzzo D, Kaiman CM, et al. Ribavirin disposition in high-risk patients for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 41: 546–555, 1987 Laskin OL, Longstreth JA, Whelton A, Krasny HC, Keeney RE, et al. Effect of renal failure on the pharmacokinetics of acyclovir. American Journal of Medicine 73 (Suppl. A): 197–201, 1982b Lau RJ, Emery MG, Galinsky RE. Unexpected accumulation of acyclovir in breast milk with estimation of infant exposure. Obstetrics and Gynecology 69: 468–471, 1987 Lepage GA, Khaliq A, Gottlieb JA. Studies of 9-beta-D-arabi-nofuranosyladenine in man. Drug Metabolism and Disposition 1: 756–759, 1973 Lertora JJL, Rege AB, Lacour JT, Ferencz N, George WJ, et al. Pharmacokinetics and long term tolerance to ribavirin in asymptomatic patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 50: 442–449, 1991 Lewis LD, Fowle ASE, Bittiner SB, Bye A, Isaacs PET. Human gastrointestinal absorption of acyclovir from tablet, duodenal infusion and sipped solution. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 21: 459–462, 1986 Lotterer E, Ruhnke M, Trautmann M, Beyer R, Bauer FE. Decreased and variable systemic availability of zidovudine in patients with AIDS if administered with a meal. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 40: 305–308, 1991 Lycke J, Anderson O, Svennerholm B, Appelgren L, Dahlöf C. Acyclovir concentrations in serum and cerebrospinal fluid at steady state. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 24: 947–954, 1989 Marx JL. Drug-resistant strains of AIDS virus found. Science 243: 1551–1552, 1989 Matthews T, Boehme R. Antiviral activity and mechanism of action of ganciclovir. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 10: S490–S494, 1988 McGowan JJ, Tomaszdewski JE, Craddock J, Hoth D, Grieshaber CK, et al. Overview of the preclinical development of an antiretroviral drug, 2′3′-dideoxyinosine. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 12 (Suppl. 5): S513–S521, 1990 Merigan TC, Skowron G, Bozette SA, Richman D, Uttamchandani et al. Circulating p24 antigen levels and responses to di-deoxycytidine in human immunodeficiency virus infections: a phase I study. Annals of Internal Medicine 110: 189–194, 1989 Meyer LJ, de Miranda P, Sheth N, Spruance S. Acyclovir in human breast milk. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 158: 586–588, 1988 Miller WH, Miller RL. Phosphorylation of acyclovir (acycloguanosine) monophosphate by GMP kinase. Journal of Biological Chemistry 255: 7204–7207, 1980 Mindel A, Carney O. Acyclovir malabsorption. British Medical Journal 296: 1605, 1988 Mitsuya H, Broder S. Inhibition of the in vitro infectivity and cytopathic effect of human T-lymphotropic virus type III/lymphadenopathy-associated virus (HTLV-III/LAV) by 2′,3′-dideoxynucleosides. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 82: 7096–7100, 1986 Mitsuya H, Broder S. Strategies for antiviral therapy in AIDS. Nature 325: 773–778, 1987 Morse GD. Zidovudine. Evans et al. (Eds) In Applied pharmacokinetics: principles of therapeutic drug monitoring, 3rd ed., Chapter 19, pp. 1–19, Applied Therapeutics Inc, Vancouver, Washington, 1992a Morse GD, Lechner JL, Santora JA, Rozek SL. Zidovudine update: 1990. DICP: Annals of Pharmacotherapy 24: 754–760, 1990a Morse GD, Olson J, Portmore A, Taylor C, Plank C, et al. Pharmacokinetics of orally administered zidovudine among patients with hemophilia and asymptomatic human immunodeficiency virus infection. Antiviral Research 11: 57–66, 1989 Morse GD, Portmore A, O’Donnell A, Barlos L, Plank C, et al. Prolonged elimination of zidovudine detected by radioimmunoassay. Pharmacotherapy 11: 104, 1991 Morse GD, Portmore A, Olson L, Taylor C, Plank C, et al. Multiple-dose pharmacokinetics of oral zidovudine in hemophilia patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 34: 394–397, 1990b Morse GD, Portmore A, Olson J, Taylor C, Plask C, et al. Intravenous and oral pharmacokinetics and coagulation effects of zidovudine in asymptomatic human immunodeficiency virus-infected hemophiliac patients. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 36: 2245–2252, 1992b O’Brien JJ, Campoli-Richards DM. Acyclovir: an updated review of its antiviral activity, pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic efficacy. Drugs 37: 233–309, 1989 O’Donnell A, Bartos L, Morse GD. Zidovudine distribution into blood components. Abstract. Pharmacotherapy 11: P–39, 1991 Page T, Connor JD. The metabolism of ribavirin in erythrocytes and nucleated cells. International Journal of Biochemistry 22: 379–383, 1990 Parke-Davis, Division of Warner Lambert Co., Vira-A package insert, 1989 Paroni R, Del Puppo M, Borght C, Sirtori CR, Gallikienle M. Pharmacokinetics of ribavirin and urinary excretion of the major metabolite 1,2,4-triazole-3-carboxamide in normal volunteers. International Journal of Clinical Pharmacology Therapeutics and Toxicology 29: 302–307, 1989 Pizzo PA, Butler K, Balis F, Brouwers E, Hawkins M, et al. Di-deoxycytidine alone and in alternating schedule with zidovudine in children with symptomatic human immunodeficiency virus infection. Journal of Pediatrics 117: 799–808, 1990 Plagemann PG, Woffendin C. Dideoxycytidine permeation and salvage by mouse leukemia cells and human erythrocytes. Biochemical Pharmacology 38: 3469–3475, 1989 Portmore A, Morse GD, Hewitt R, Reichman RC. Comparative oral disposition of zidovudine in neutropenic AIDS patients and asymptomatic hemophiliacs. Sixth International Conference on AIDS, San Francisco, Abstract SB.442, 1990 Plunkett W, Benjamin RS, Keating MJ, Freireich EJ. Modulation of 9-beta-d-arabinofuranosyladenine 5′-triphosphate in leukemic cells by 2′-deoxycoformycin during therapy with 9-beta-D-arabinofuranosyladenine. Cancer Research 42: 2092–2096, 1982 Pons JC, Boubon MC, Taburet AM, Singlas E, Chambrin V, et al. Fetoplacental passage of 2′,3′-dideoxyinosine. Lancet 1: 732, 1991 Preiksaitis JK, Lank B, Ng PK, Brox L, LePage GA, et al. Effect of liver disease on pharmacokinetics and toxicity of 9-beta-D-arabinofuranosyladenine-5′phosphate. Journal of Infectious Diseases 144: 358–364, 1981 Roberts RB, Laskin OL, Laurence J, Scavuzzo D, Murray HW, et al. Ribavirin pharmacodynamics in high-risk patients for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 42: 365–373, 1987 Rolinski B, Wintergerst U, Matuschke A, Füessl, Goebel FD, et al. Evaluation of saliva as a specimen for monitoring therapy in HIV-infected patients. AIDS 5: 858–888, 1991 Sacks SL, Scullard GH, Pollard RB, Gregory PB, Robinson WS, et al. Antiviral treatment of chronic hepatitis B virus infection: pharmacokinetics and side effects of interferon and adenine arabinoside alone and in combination. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 21: 93–100, 1982 Sattler FR, Ko R, Antoniskis D, Shields M, Cohen J, et al. Acetaminophen does not impair clearance of zidovudine. Annals of Internal Medicine 114: 937–940, 1991 Schwartz EL, Brechbühl AB, Kahl P, Miller MA, Selwyn PA, et al. Pharmacokinetic interactions of zidovudine and methadone inintravenous drug-using patients with HIV infection. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 5: 619–626, 1992 Schwartz PM, Novack J, Shipman C Jr, Drach JC. Metabolism of arabinosyladenine in herpes simplex virus-infected and uninfected cells. Biochemical Pharmacology 33: 2431–2438, 1984 Seidlin M, Iambert JS, Dolia R, Valentine FJ. Pancreatitis and pancreatic dysfunction in patients taking dideoxyinosine. AIDS 6: 831–835, 1992 Shah GM, Winer RL, Krasny HC. Acyclovir pharmacokinetics in a patient on continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. American Journal of Kidney Diseases 7: 507–510, 1986 Shepp DH, Dandliker PS, deMiranda P, Burnette TC, Cederberg DM, et al. Activity of 9-[2-hydroxy-l-(hydroxymethyl) ethoxymethyl]guanine in the treatment of cytomegalovirus pneumonia. Annals of Internal Medicine 103: 368–373, 1985 Shope TC, Kauffman RE, Bowman D, Marcus EL. Pharmacokinetics of vidarabine in the treatment of infants and children with infections due to herpesviruses. Journal of Infectious Diseases 148: 721–725, 1983 Shyu WC, Kaupp CA, Pittman KA, Duakle L, Barbhaiya RH. Food-induced reduction in bioavailability of didanosine. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 50: 503–507, 1991 Singlas E, Borsa Lebas F, parent de Curzon O, Sobel, A, et al. Didanosine pharmacokinetics in patients with normal and impaired renal function: influence of hemodialysis. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 36: 1519–1524, 1992 Singlas E, Pioger JC, Taburet AM, Colaneri S, Fillastre JP. Comparative pharmacokinetics of zidovudine (AZT) and its metabolite (G.AZT) in healthy subjects and HIV seropositive patients. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 36: 639–640, 1989 Singlas E, Pioger JC, Taburet AM, Colin JN, Fillastre JP. Zidovudine disposition in patients with severe renal impairment: influence of hemodialysis. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 46: 190–197, 1989 Slucher JT, Kuwahara SK, Hamzeh FM, Lewis LD, Kornhauser DM, et al. Intracellular zidovudine (ZDV) and ZDV phosphates as measured by a validated combined high-pressure liquid chromatography radioimmunoassay procedure. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 36: 2473–2477, 1992 Smith RA. Mechanisms of action of ribavirin. In Smith RA & Kirkpatrick W (Eds) Ribavirin: a broad spectrum antiviral agent, Academy Press, New York, 1980 Sommadossi JP, Bevan R, Ling T, Lee F, Mastre B, et al. Clinical pharmacokinetics of ganciclovir in patients with normal and impaired renal function. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 10 (Suppl. 3): S507–S514, 1988 Starnes MC, Cheng YC. Cellular metabolism of 2′,3′-dideoxycytidine, a compound active against human immunodeficiency virus in vitro. Journal of Biological Chemistry 262: 988–991, 1987 Steffe EM, King JH, Inciardi EJ, Flynn NF, Goldstein E, et al. The effect of acetaminophen on zidovudine metabolism in HIV-infected patients. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 3: 691–694, 1990 Stretcher BM. State-of-the-art of zidovudine monitoring. Journal of Clinical Laboratory Analysis 5: 60–68, 1991 Stretcher BN, Pesce AJ, Geisler BA, Vine WH. A coupled HPLC/radioimmunoassay for analysis of zidovudine metabolites in mononuclear cells. Journal of Liquid Chromatography 14: 2261–2272, 1991 Stretcher BN, Pesce AJ, Wermeling JR, Hurtubise PE. In vitro measurement of phosphorylated zidovudine in peripheral blood leucocytes. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring 12: 481–489, 1990 Sullender WM, Arvin AM, Diaz PS, Connor JD, Straube R, et al. Pharmacokinetics of acyclovir suspension in infants and children. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 31: 1722–1726, 1987 Swan SK, Munar MY, Wigger MA, Bennett WM. Pharmacokinetics of ganciclovir in a patient undergoing hemodialysis. American Journal of Kidney Diseases 17: 69–72, 1991 Ullman B, Coons T, Rockwell S, McCartan K. Genetic analysis of 2′,3′-dideoxycytidine incorporation into cultured human T lymphoblasts. Journal of Biological Chemistry 263: 12391–12396, 1988 Unadkat JD, Coller AC, Crosby S, Cummings D, Opheim KE, et al. Influence of a high fat meal on zidovudine pharmacokinetics. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 4: 229–232, 1990 Unadkat JD, Lopez AA, Schumann L. Transplacental transfer and the pharmacokinetics of zidovudine (ZDV) in the near term pregnant macaque. Proceedings of the 28th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, Los Angeles, p. 372, 1988 Volberding PA, Lagakos SW, Koch MA, Pettinelli C, Myers MW, et al. Zidovudine in asymptomatic human immunodeficiency virus infection. New England Journal of Medicine 322: 941–949, 1990 Wade JC, Hintz M, McGuffin RW, Springmeyer SC, Connor JD, et al. Treatment of cytomegalovirus pneumonia with high-dose acyclovir. American Journal of Medicine 73: 249–255, 1982 Watts, DH, Brown ZA, Tartaglione T, Burchett SK, Opheim K, et al. Pharmacokinetic disposition of zidovudine during pregnancy. Journal of Infectious Diseases 163: 226–232, 1991 Whitley R, Alford C, Hess F, Buchanan R. Vidarabine: a preliminary review of its pharmacological properties and therapeutic use. Drugs 20: 267–282, 1980a Whitley RJ, Soong SJ, Hirsch MS, Karchmer AW, Dolin R, et al. NIAID Collaborative Antiviral Study Group. Herpes simplex encephalitis: vidarabine therapy and diagnostic problems. New England Journal of Medicine 304: 313–318, 1981 Whitley RJ, Tucker BC, Kinkel AW, Barton NH, Pass RF, et al. Pharmacology, tolerance, and antiviral activity of vidarabine monophosphate in humans. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 18: 709–715, 1980b Yarchoan R, Mitsuya H, Thomas RV, Pluda JM. In vivo activity against HIV and favorable toxicity profile of 2′,3′-dideoxyinosine. Science 245: 412–415, 1989 Yarchoan R, Thomas RV, Allain JP, McAtee N, Dubinsky R, et al. Phase I studies of 2′,3′-dideoxycytidine in severe human immunodeficiency virus infection as a single agent and alternating with zidovudine (AZT). Lancet 1: 76–80, 1988