Commercial and research battery technologies for electrical energy storage applications

Progress in Energy and Combustion Science - Tập 48 - Trang 84-101 - 2015
Jaephil Cho1, Sookyung Jeong1, Youngsik Kim1
1Department of Energy Engineering, School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan, 689-798, South Korea

Tài liệu tham khảo

Deepwater horizon accident and response. BP p.l.c. Available from: http://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/gulf-of-mexico-restoration/deepwater-horizon-accident-and-response.html. Fukushima accident. London; World Nuclear Association. Available from: http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/fukushima-accident/. Greenhouse gas emissions. United States Environmental Protection Agency; Available from: http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/. Chourabi, 2012, Understanding smart cities: an integrative framework. System Science (HICSS), 2289 Ahmed, 2008, Power fluctuations suppression of stand-alone hybrid generation combining solar photovoltaic/wind turbine and fuel cell systems, Energy Convers Manage, 49, 2711, 10.1016/j.enconman.2008.04.005 Paul Denholm, 2010 Whittingham, 2008, Materials challenges facing electrical energy storage, MRS Bull, 33, 411, 10.1557/mrs2008.82 Ibrahim, 2008, Energy storage systems—characteristics and comparisons, Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 12, 1221, 10.1016/j.rser.2007.01.023 Dunn, 2011, Electrical energy storage for the grid: a battery of choices, Science, 334, 928, 10.1126/science.1212741 Chen, 2009, Progress in electrical energy storage system: a critical review, Prog Nat Sci, 19, 291, 10.1016/j.pnsc.2008.07.014 Bueno, 2006, Wind powered pumped hydro storage systems, a means of increasing the penetration of renewable energy in the Canary Islands, Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 10, 312, 10.1016/j.rser.2004.09.005 van der Linden, 2006, Bulk energy storage potential in the USA, current developments and future prospects, Energy, 31, 3446, 10.1016/j.energy.2006.03.016 Kondoh, 2000, Electrical energy storage systems for energy networks, Energ Convers Manage, 41, 1863, 10.1016/S0196-8904(00)00028-5 Ribeiro, 2001, Energy storage systems for advanced power applications, Proc IEEE, 89, 1744, 10.1109/5.975900 Bolund, 2007, Flywheel energy and power storage systems, Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 11, 235, 10.1016/j.rser.2005.01.004 Denholm, 2004, Life cycle energy requirements and greenhouse gas emissions from large scale energy storage systems, Energy Convers Manage, 45, 2153, 10.1016/j.enconman.2003.10.014 Denholm, 2005, Improved accounting of emissions from utility energy storage system operation, Environ Sci Technol, 39, 9016, 10.1021/es0505898 Skyllas-Kazacos, 2011, Progress in flow battery research and development, J Electrochem Soc, 158, R55, 10.1149/1.3599565 Energy storage industry grows to integrate wind, solar. RenewableEnergyWorld.com Available from: http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2011/08/energy-storage-industry-grows-to-integrate-wind-solar. Winter, 2004, What are batteries, fuel cells, and supercapacitors?, Chem Rev, 104, 4245, 10.1021/cr020730k Goodenough, 2009, Challenges for rechargeable Li batteries, Chem Mater, 22, 587, 10.1021/cm901452z Salkind, 2002, 23 Salkind, 2002, 24 Perrin, 2005, Lead–acid batteries in stationary applications: competitors and new markets for large penetration of renewable energies, J Power Sources, 144, 402, 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2004.10.026 Parker, 2001, Lead–acid battery energy-storage systems for electricity supply networks, J Power Sources, 100, 18, 10.1016/S0378-7753(01)00880-1 Treptow, 2002, The lead-acid battery: its voltage in theory and in practice, J Chem Educ, 79, 334, 10.1021/ed079p334 Mantell, 1983 Lead-acid batteries: science and technology/chapter 1-invention and development of the lead–acid battery. p. 3–28. Lam, 2004, Failure mode of valve-regulated lead-acid batteries under high-rate partial-state-of-charge operation, J Power Sources, 133, 126, 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2003.11.048 Lam, 2005, Novel technique to ensure battery reliability in 42-V PowerNets for new-generation automobiles, J Power Sources, 144, 552, 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2004.11.028 Chih-Chiang, 2000, A study of charging control of lead-acid battery for electric vehicles. Industrial electronics, vol. 1, 135 Moseley, 2006, The role of carbon in valve-regulated lead–acid battery technology, J Power Sources, 157, 3, 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2006.02.031 Shiomi, 1997, Effects of carbon in negative plates on cycle-life performance of valve-regulated lead/acid batteries, J Power Sources, 64, 147, 10.1016/S0378-7753(96)02515-3 Nakamura, 1996, Failure modes of valve-regulated lead/acid batteries, J Power Sources, 59, 153, 10.1016/0378-7753(95)02317-8 Razoumov S, Klementov A, Litvinenko S, Beliakov A. U.S. Patent 6, 222, 723, 2001. Cooper, 2009, The UltraBattery—a new battery design for a new beginning in hybrid electric vehicle energy storage, J Power Sources, 188, 642, 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2008.11.119 Kummer JT, Weber N. U.S. Patent 1968, 3413150. Dufo-López, 2009, Generation management using batteries in wind farms: economical and technical analysis for Spain, Energy Policy, 37, 126, 10.1016/j.enpol.2008.08.012 Yang, 2011, Electrochemical energy storage for Green grid, Chem Rev, 3577, 10.1021/cr100290v Jeffery, 2002, 40 Oshima, 2004, Development of sodium-sulfur batteries, Int J Appl Ceram Technol, 1, 269, 10.1111/j.1744-7402.2004.tb00179.x Virkar, 1978, Resistivity-microstructure relations in Lithia-stabilized polycrystalline β″-alumina, J Am Ceram Soc, 61, 250, 10.1111/j.1151-2916.1978.tb09292.x Youngblood, 1978, Relative effects of phase conversion and grain size on sodium ion conduction in polycrystalline, Lithia-stabilized β-alumina, J Am Ceram Soc, 61, 86, 10.1111/j.1151-2916.1978.tb09238.x Sudworth, 1985 NAS battery fire incident and response. Nagoya; NGK INSULATOR, LTD; Available from: http://www.ngk.co.jp/english/news/2012/0607.html. Song, 2010, A novel Bi-doped borosilicate glass as sealant for sodium sulfur battery. Part 1: thermophysical characteristics and structure, J Power Sources, 195, 384, 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2009.06.041 Song, 2010, New glass-ceramic sealants for Na/S battery, J Solid State Electr, 14, 1735, 10.1007/s10008-010-1028-6 Song, 2010, The effect of substitution of Bi2O3 for alkali oxides on thermal properties, structure and wetting behavior of the borosilicate glass, Mater Lett, 64, 1025, 10.1016/j.matlet.2010.01.080 Tischer, 1983 Wen, 2013, Main challenges for high performance NAS battery: materials and interfaces, Adv Funct Mater, 23, 1005, 10.1002/adfm.201200473 Park, 2007, Discharge properties of all-solid sodium–sulfur battery using poly (ethylene oxide) electrolyte, J Power Sources, 165, 450, 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2006.11.083 Park, 2006, Room-temperature solid-state sodium/sulfur battery, Electrochem Solid St, 9, A123, 10.1149/1.2164607 Kim, 2008, The short-term cycling properties of Na/PVdF/S battery at ambient temperature, J Solid State Electr, 12, 861, 10.1007/s10008-008-0504-8 Wang, 2007, Room temperature Na/S batteries with sulfur composite cathode materials, Electrochem Commun, 9, 31, 10.1016/j.elecom.2006.08.029 Ryu, 2011, Discharge reaction mechanism of room-temperature sodium–sulfur battery with tetra ethylene glycol dimethyl ether liquid electrolyte, J Power Sources, 196, 5186, 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2011.01.109 Lu, 2013, Advanced intermediate-temperature Na-S battery, Energ Environ Sci, 6, 299, 10.1039/C2EE23606K Choi, 2012, Challenges facing lithium batteries and electrical double-layer capacitors, Angew Chem Int Ed, 51, 9994, 10.1002/anie.201201429 Tarascon, 2001, Issues and challenges facing rechargeable lithium batteries, Nature, 414, 359, 10.1038/35104644 Grant, 2002, 35 Howell, 2008 Gaines, 2000 Viswanathan, 2010, Effect of entropy change of lithium intercalation in cathodes and anodes on Li-ion battery thermal management, J Power Sources, 195, 3720, 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2009.11.103 Wang, 2013, Li-ion battery with LiFePO4 cathode and Li4Ti5O12 anode for stationary energy storage, Metall Mat Trans A, 44, 21, 10.1007/s11661-012-1284-4 Jaiswal, 2009, Nanoscale LiFePO4 and Li4Ti5O12 for high rate Li-ion batteries, J Electrochem Soc, 156, A1041, 10.1149/1.3223987 Zaghib, 2011, Safe and fast-charging Li-ion battery with long shelf life for power applications, J Power Sources, 196, 3949, 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.11.093 Wang, 2008, The design of a LiFePO4/carbon nanocomposite with a core–shell structure and its synthesis by an in situ polymerization restriction method, Angew Chem Int Ed, 47, 7461, 10.1002/anie.200802539 Sun, 2011, Monodisperse porous LiFePO4 microspheres for a high power Li-ion battery cathode, J Am Chem Soc, 133, 2132, 10.1021/ja1110464 Caballero, 2006, A new and fast synthesis of nanosized LiFePO4 electrode materials, Eur J Inorg Chem, 2006, 1758, 10.1002/ejic.200501013 Kim, 2013, Role of lithium precursor in the structure and electrochemical performance of LiFePO4, Scr Mater, 69, 716, 10.1016/j.scriptamat.2013.08.009 Eckroad, 2002 Leung, 2012, Progress in redox flow batteries, remaining challenges and their applications in energy storage, RSC Adv, 2, 10125, 10.1039/c2ra21342g Kazacos, 1989, Performance characteristics of carbon plastic electrodes in the all-vanadium redox cell, J Electrochem Soc, 136, 2759, 10.1149/1.2097588 Kazacos, 1990, Vanadium redox cell electrolyte optimization studies, J Appl Electrochem, 20, 463, 10.1007/BF01076057 Skyllas-Kazacos, 1996, Thermal stability of concentrated V(V) electrolytes in the vanadium redox cell, J Electrochem Soc, 143, L86, 10.1149/1.1836609 Rahman, 1998, Solubility of vanadyl sulfate in concentrated sulfuric acid solutions, J Power Sources, 72, 105, 10.1016/S0378-7753(97)02692-X Skyllas-Kazacos, 1999, Evaluation of precipitation inhibitors for supersaturated vanadyl electrolytes for the vanadium redox battery, Electrochem Solid St, 2, 121, 10.1149/1.1390754 Rahman, 2009, Vanadium redox battery: positive half-cell electrolyte studies, J Power Sources, 189, 1212, 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2008.12.113 Rychcik, 1987, Evaluation of electrode materials for vanadium redox cell, J Power Sources, 19, 45, 10.1016/0378-7753(87)80006-X Li, 2011, Ion exchange membranes for vanadium redox flow battery (VRB) applications, Energy Environ Sci, 4, 1147, 10.1039/c0ee00770f Sun, 1992, Modification of graphite electrode materials for vanadium redox flow battery application—I. Thermal treatment, Electrochim Acta, 37, 1253, 10.1016/0013-4686(92)85064-R Zhu, 2008, Graphite–carbon nanotube composite electrodes for all vanadium redox flow battery, J Power Sources, 184, 637, 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2008.04.016 Shao, 2010, Nitrogen-doped mesoporous carbon for energy storage in vanadium redox flow batteries, J Power Sources, 195, 4375, 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.01.015 Park, 2013, Synergistic effect of carbon nanofiber/nanotube composite catalyst on carbon felt electrode for high-performance all-vanadium redox flow battery, Nano Lett, 13, 4833, 10.1021/nl402566s Xing, 2011, Shunt current loss of the vanadium redox flow battery, J Power Sources, 196, 10753, 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2011.08.033 Linden, 2002 Kinoshita, 1992 Ian Kowalczk, 2007, Li-air batteries: a classic example of limitations owing to solubilities, Pure Appl Chem, 79, 851, 10.1351/pac200779050851 McCloskey, 2011, Solvents' critical role in nonaqueous lithium–oxygen battery electrochemistry, J Phys Chem Lett, 2, 1161, 10.1021/jz200352v Chakkaravarthy, 1981, Zinc—air alkaline batteries — a review, J Power Sources, 6, 203, 10.1016/0378-7753(81)80027-4 Lee, 2006, Novel electrochemical behavior of zinc anodes in zinc/air batteries in the presence of additives, J Power Sources, 159, 1474, 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2005.11.074 Goldstein, 1999, New developments in the Electric Fuel Ltd. zinc/air system, J Power Sources, 80, 171, 10.1016/S0378-7753(98)00260-2 Sapkota, 2009, Zinc–air fuel cell, a potential candidate for alternative energy, J Ind Eng Chem, 15, 445, 10.1016/j.jiec.2009.01.002 Drillet, 2010, Development of a novel Zinc/air fuel cell with a Zn foam anode, a PVA/KOH membrane and a MnO2/SiOC-based air cathode, ECS Trans, 28, 13, 10.1149/1.3507923 Toussaint, 2010, Development of a rechargeable zinc-air battery, ECS Trans, 28, 25, 10.1149/1.3507924 Shaigan, 2010, Morphology control of electrodeposited zinc from alkaline Zincate solutions for rechargeable zinc air batteries, ECS Trans, 28, 35, 10.1149/1.3507925 Yang, 2002, Improvement of high-rate capability of alkaline Zn–MnO2 battery, J Power Sources, 112, 174, 10.1016/S0378-7753(02)00354-3 Zhang, 2006, Fibrous zinc anodes for high power batteries, J Power Sources, 163, 591, 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2006.09.034 Devyatkina, 2001, Development of ways to diminish corrosion of zinc electrode, Russ J Appl Chem, 74, 1122, 10.1023/A:1013058615990 Müller, 1998, Optimized zinc electrode for the rechargeable zinc–air battery, J Appl Electrochem, 28, 895, 10.1023/A:1003464011815 Lee, 2006, Novel alloys to improve the electrochemical behavior of zinc anodes for zinc/air battery, J Power Sources, 160, 1436, 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2006.02.019 Cho, 2008, Surface treatment of zinc anodes to improve discharge capacity and suppress hydrogen gas evolution, J Power Sources, 184, 610, 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2008.04.081 Zhu, 2009, New modification procedure of zinc powder in neodymium nitrate solution for improving the electrochemical properties of alkaline zinc electrodes, J Phys Chem Solids, 70, 45, 10.1016/j.jpcs.2008.09.005 Appleby, 1976, The C.G.E. circulating zinc/air battery: a practical vehicle power source, J Power Sources, 1, 17, 10.1016/0378-7753(76)80003-1 Fauvarque, 1995, Alkaline poly(ethylene oxide) solid polymer electrolytes. Application to nickel secondary batteries, Electrochim Acta, 40, 2449, 10.1016/0013-4686(95)00212-W Lewandowski, 2000, Novel poly(vinyl alcohol)–KOH–H2O alkaline polymer electrolyte, Solid State Ionics, 133, 265, 10.1016/S0167-2738(00)00733-5 Saputra, 2011, MCM-41 as a new separator material for electrochemical cell: application in zinc–air system, J Membr Sci, 367, 152, 10.1016/j.memsci.2010.10.061 Mohamad, 2006, Zn/gelled 6M KOH/O2 zinc–air battery, J Power Sources, 159, 752, 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2005.10.110 Jörissen, 2006, Bifunctional oxygen/air electrodes, J Power Sources, 155, 23, 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2005.07.038 Cheng, 2006, Reduction of CO2 concentration in a zinc/air battery by absorption in a rotating packed bed, J Power Sources, 162, 1431, 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2006.07.046 Deiss, 2002, Modeling of an electrically rechargeable alkaline Zn–air battery, Electrochim Acta, 47, 3995, 10.1016/S0013-4686(02)00316-X Müller, 1994, La0.6Ca0.4CoO3: a stable and powerful catalyst for bifunctional air electrodes, Electrochim Acta, 39, 1661, 10.1016/0013-4686(94)85151-4 Lee, 2011, Ionic liquid modified graphene nanosheets anchoring manganese oxide nanoparticles as efficient electrocatalysts for Zn-air batteries, Energ Environ Sci, 4, 4148, 10.1039/c1ee01942b Gara, 2011, Activity of carbon electrodes towards oxygen reduction in acid: a comparative study, New J Chem, 35, 2647, 10.1039/c1nj20612e Wang, 2010, Ammonia-treated ordered mesoporous carbons as catalytic materials for oxygen reduction reaction, Chem Mater, 22, 2178, 10.1021/cm100139d Yang, 2010, Efficient metal-free oxygen reduction in alkaline medium on high-surface-area mesoporous nitrogen-doped carbons made from ionic liquids and nucleobases, J Am Chem Soc, 133, 206, 10.1021/ja108039j Shanmugam, 2011, Efficient electrocatalytic oxygen reduction over metal free-nitrogen doped carbon nanocapsules, Chem Commun, 47, 4463, 10.1039/c1cc10361j Kannan, 2011, Enhanced electrocatalytic performance of functionalized carbon nanotube electrodes for oxygen reduction in proton exchange membrane fuel cells, Phys Chem Chem Phys, 13, 10312, 10.1039/c0cp02853c Kim, 2011, On the mechanism of enhanced oxygen reduction reaction in nitrogen-doped graphene nanoribbons, Phys Chem Chem Phys, 13, 17505, 10.1039/c1cp21665a Cao, 2013, Promotion of oxygen reduction by a bio-inspired tethered iron phthalocyanine carbon nanotube-based catalyst, Nat Commun, 4 Lee, 2011, Ketjenblack carbon supported amorphous manganese oxides nanowires as highly efficient electrocatalyst for oxygen reduction reaction in alkaline solutions, Nano Lett, 11, 5362, 10.1021/nl2029078 Lee, 2013, A highly efficient electrocatalyst for the oxygen reduction reaction: N-doped Ketjenblack incorporated into Fe/Fe3C-functionalized melamine foam, Angew Chem Int Ed, 52, 1026, 10.1002/anie.201207193 Sun, 2014, Graphene-Co3O4 nanocomposite as an efficient bifunctional catalyst for lithium-air batteries, J Mater Chem A, 2, 7188, 10.1039/C4TA00802B Wang, 2003, Studies on the oxygen reduction catalyst for zinc–air battery electrode, J Power Sources, 124, 278, 10.1016/S0378-7753(03)00737-7 Neburchilov, 2010, A review on air cathodes for zinc–air fuel cells, J Power Sources, 195, 1271, 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2009.08.100 Wei, 2000, Carbon-based air electrodes carrying MnO2 in zinc–air batteries, J Power Sources, 91, 83, 10.1016/S0378-7753(00)00417-1 Yang, 2012, Perovskite Sr0.95Ce0.05CoO3-δ loaded with copper nanoparticles as a bifunctional catalyst for lithium-air batteries, J Mater Chem, 22, 18902, 10.1039/c2jm33440b Gorlin, 2010, A bifunctional nonprecious metal catalyst for oxygen reduction and water oxidation, J Am Chem Soc, 132, 13612, 10.1021/ja104587v Chen, 2012, Manganese dioxide nanotube and nitrogen-doped carbon nanotube based composite bifunctional catalyst for rechargeable zinc-air battery, Electrochim Acta, 69, 295, 10.1016/j.electacta.2012.03.001 Huskinson, 2014, A metal-free organic-inorganic aqueous flow battery, Nature, 505, 195, 10.1038/nature12909 Song, 2010, Thermodynamic and kinetic considerations for the reaction of semiquinone radicals to form superoxide and hydrogen peroxide, Free Radic Bio Med, 49, 919, 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2010.05.009 Weber, 2011, Redox flow batteries: a review, J Appl Electrochem, 41, 1137, 10.1007/s10800-011-0348-2 Matsuda, 1988, A rechargeable redox battery utilizing ruthenium complexes with non-aqueous organic electrolyte, J Appl Electrochem, 18, 909, 10.1007/BF01016050 Mun, 2012, Non-aqueous redox flow batteries with nickel and iron tris(2,2′-bipyridine) complex electrolyte, Electrochem Solid St, 15, A80, 10.1149/2.033206esl Liu, 2010, Non-aqueous chromium acetylacetonate electrolyte for redox flow batteries, Electrochem Commun, 12, 1634, 10.1016/j.elecom.2010.09.013 Liu, 2009, Non-aqueous vanadium acetylacetonate electrolyte for redox flow batteries, Electrochem Commun, 11, 2312, 10.1016/j.elecom.2009.10.006 Zhang, 2012, Tetrabutylammonium hexafluorophosphate and 1-ethyl-3-methyl imidazolium hexafluorophosphate ionic liquids as supporting electrolytes for non-aqueous vanadium redox flow batteries, J Power Sources, 203, 201, 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2011.10.136 Shinkle, 2012, Degradation mechanisms in the non-aqueous vanadium acetylacetonate redox flow battery, J Power Sources, 206, 490, 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.12.096 Li, 2011, Electrochemical properties of an all-organic redox flow battery using 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-1-piperidinyloxy and N-methylphthalimide, Electrochem Solid St, 14, A171, 10.1149/2.012112esl Brushett, 2012, An all-organic non-aqueous lithium-ion redox flow battery, Adv Energy Mater, 2, 1390, 10.1002/aenm.201200322 Lu, 2011, Aqueous cathode for next-generation alkali-ion batteries, J Am Chem Soc, 133, 5756, 10.1021/ja201118f Kim, 2014, Li-water battery with oxygen dissolved in water as a cathode, J Electrochem Soc, 161, A285, 10.1149/2.038403jes Lu, 2011, Rechargeable alkali-ion cathode-flow battery, J Mater Chem, 21, 10113, 10.1039/c0jm04222f Wang, 2011, A Li–liquid cathode battery based on a hybrid electrolyte, ChemSusChem, 4, 1087, 10.1002/cssc.201100201 Musić, 2004, Effect of HCl additions on forced hydrolysis of FeCl3 solutions, Mater Lett, 58, 2640, 10.1016/j.matlet.2004.04.002 Wolf, 1967, Electron-microscopic investigation of the formation of colloidal beta FeOOH during slow hydrolysis of an aqueous ferric chloride solution at room temperature, Colloid Polym Sci, 215, 57 Asl, 2012, Lithium-liquid battery: harvesting lithium from waste Li-ion batteries and discharging with water, RSC Adv, 2, 6094, 10.1039/c2ra20814h Li, 2009, Rechargeable Ni-Li battery integrated aqueous/nonaqueous system, J Am Chem Soc, 131, 15098, 10.1021/ja906529g Wang, 2009, A new type rechargeable lithium battery based on a Cu-cathode, Electrochem Commun, 11, 1834, 10.1016/j.elecom.2009.07.031 Wang, 2010, Controllable hydrogen generation from water, ChemSusChem, 3, 571, 10.1002/cssc.201000049 Zhang, 2010, Stability of a water-stable lithium metal anode for a Lithium–air battery with acetic acid–water solutions, J Electrochem Soc, 157, A214, 10.1149/1.3271103 Zhang, 2011, Aqueous Lithium/air rechargeable batteries, Chem Lett, 40, 668, 10.1246/cl.2011.668 Li, 2012, A dual-electrolyte rechargeable Li-air battery with phosphate buffer catholyte, Electrochem Commun, 14, 78, 10.1016/j.elecom.2011.11.007 Chun, 2013, Using waste Li ion batteries as cathodes in rechargeable Li-liquid batteries, Phys Chem Chem Phys, 15, 7036, 10.1039/c3cp00006k Gyuk, 2013 Gruber, 2011, Global lithium availability, J Ind Ecol, 15, 760, 10.1111/j.1530-9290.2011.00359.x Thackeray, 2012, Electrical energy storage for transportation-approaching the limits of, and going beyond, lithium-ion batteries, Energy Environ Sci, 5, 7854, 10.1039/c2ee21892e Robert, 2002, 38 Cheng, 2012, Metal-air batteries: from oxygen reduction electrochemistry to cathode catalysts, Chem Soc Rev, 41, 2172, 10.1039/c1cs15228a