Cognitive disorders in diabetic patients

Handbook of Clinical Neurology - Tập 126 - Trang 145-166 - 2014
Paula S. Koekkoek1, Guy E.H.M. Rutten1, Geert Jan Biessels2
1Julius Center for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
2Department of Neurology, Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neurosciences, University Medical Center Utrecht, The Netherlands

Tài liệu tham khảo

Alafuzoff, 2009, Beta-amyloid deposition in brains of subjects with diabetes, Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol, 35, 60, 10.1111/j.1365-2990.2008.00948.x Albert, 1995, Predictors of cognitive change in older persons: MacArthur studies of successful aging, Psychol Aging, 10, 578, 10.1037/0882-7974.10.4.578 Alberti, 2009, Circulation, 120, 1640, 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.192644 Amieva, 2005, The 9 year cognitive decline before dementia of the Alzheimer type: a prospective population-based study, Brain, 128, 1093, 10.1093/brain/awh451 Anderson, 2001, The prevalence of comorbid depression in adults with diabetes: a meta-analysis, Diabetes Care, 24, 1069, 10.2337/diacare.24.6.1069 Angevaren, 2008, Physical activity and enhanced fitness to improve cognitive function in older people without known cognitive impairment, Cochrane Database Syst Rev,, 10.1002/14651858.CD005381.pub3 Annweiler, 2011, Serum vitamin D deficiency as a predictor of incident non-Alzheimer dementias: a 7-year longitudinal study, Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord, 32, 273, 10.1159/000334944 Arvanitakis, 2006, Diabetes is related to cerebral infarction but not to AD pathology in older persons, Neurology, 67, 1960, 10.1212/01.wnl.0000247053.45483.4e Atiea, 1995, Neuropsychological function in older subjects with noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, Diabetic Med, 12, 679, 10.1111/j.1464-5491.1995.tb00569.x Aung, 2012, Severe hypoglycaemia and late-life cognitive ability in older people with type 2 diabetes: the Edinburgh Type 2 Diabetes Study, Diabet Med, 29, 328, 10.1111/j.1464-5491.2011.03505.x Awad, 2004, The relationship between impaired glucose tolerance, type 2 diabetes, and cognitive function, J Clin Exp Neuropsychol, 26, 1044, 10.1080/13803390490514875 Baldwin, 2002, Vascular basis of late-onset depressive disorder, Br J Psychiatry, 180, 157, 10.1192/bjp.180.2.157 Barberger-Gateau, 2002, Fish, meat, and risk of dementia: cohort study, BMJ, 325, 932, 10.1136/bmj.325.7370.932 Barzilay, 2011, Albuminuria and decline in cognitive function: the ONTARGET/TRANSCEND studies, Arch Intern Med, 171, 142, 10.1001/archinternmed.2010.502 Beaulieu, 2002, The basis of anisotropic water diffusion in the nervous system – a technical review, NMR Biomed, 15, 435, 10.1002/nbm.782 Beckman, 2002, Diabetes and atherosclerosis: epidemiology, pathophysiology, and management, JAMA, 287, 2570, 10.1001/jama.287.19.2570 Beeri, 2005, Type 2 diabetes is negatively associated with Alzheimer's disease neuropathology, J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci, 60, 471, 10.1093/gerona/60.4.471 Benedict, 2011, Intranasal insulin as a therapeutic option in the treatment of cognitive impairments, Exp Gerontol, 46, 112, 10.1016/j.exger.2010.08.026 Berk-Planken, 2002, Atorvastatin, diabetic dyslipidemia, and cognitive functioning, Diabetes Care, 25, 1250, 10.2337/diacare.25.7.1250 Berry, 1997, Dietary fatty acids in the management of diabetes mellitus, Am J Clin Nutr, 66, 991S, 10.1093/ajcn/66.4.991S Biessels, 2009, Diabetes: hypoglycemia and dementia in type 2 diabetes: chick or egg?, Nat Rev Endocrinol, 5, 532, 10.1038/nrendo.2009.182 Biessels, 2010, Caffeine, diabetes, cognition, and dementia, J Alzheimers Dis, 20, S143, 10.3233/JAD-2010-091228 Biessels, 2009 Biessels, 2006, Risk of dementia in diabetes mellitus: a systematic review, Lancet Neurol, 5, 64, 10.1016/S1474-4422(05)70284-2 Blair, 2005, APOE genotype and cognitive decline in a middle-aged cohort, Neurology, 64, 268, 10.1212/01.WNL.0000149643.91367.8A Brands, 2005, The effects of type 1 diabetes on cognitive performance: a meta-analysis, Diabetes Care, 28, 726, 10.2337/diacare.28.3.726 Brands, 2006, Cognitive performance, psychological well-being, and brain magnetic resonance imaging in older patients with type 1 diabetes, Diabetes, 55, 1800, 10.2337/db05-1226 Brands, 2007, A detailed profile of cognitive dysfunction and its relation to psychological distress in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, J Int Neuropsychol Soc, 13, 288, 10.1017/S1355617707070312 Breteler, 1994, Cardiovascular disease and distribution of cognitive function in elderly people: the Rotterdam Study, BMJ, 308, 1604, 10.1136/bmj.308.6944.1604 Brismar, 2007, Predictors of cognitive impairment in type 1 diabetes, Psychoneuroendocrinology, 32, 1041, 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2007.08.002 Brown, 2009, Self administered cognitive screening test (TYM) for detection of Alzheimer's disease: cross sectional study, BMJ, 338, b2030, 10.1136/bmj.b2030 Brownlee, 2001, Biochemistry and molecular cell biology of diabetic complications, Nature, 414, 813, 10.1038/414813a Bruce, 2006, Vascular depression in older people with diabetes, Diabetologia, 49, 2828, 10.1007/s00125-006-0478-y Bruce, 2008, Predictors of cognitive decline in older individuals with diabetes, Diabetes Care, 31, 2103, 10.2337/dc08-0562 Bruce, 2009, Severe hypoglycaemia and cognitive impairment in older patients with diabetes: the Fremantle Diabetes Study, Diabetologia, 52, 1808, 10.1007/s00125-009-1437-1 Bruehl, 2009, Modifiers of cognitive function and brain structure in middle-aged and elderly individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus, Brain Res, 1280, 186, 10.1016/j.brainres.2009.05.032 Bruehl, 2010, Cognitive impairment in nondiabetic middle-aged and older adults is associated with insulin resistance, J Clin Exp Neuropsychol, 32, 487, 10.1080/13803390903224928 Brundel, 2010, Cerebral cortical thickness in patients with type 2 diabetes, J Neurol Sci, 299, 126, 10.1016/j.jns.2010.08.048 Caccamo, 2005, Age- and region-dependent alterations in Abeta-degrading enzymes: implications for Abeta-induced disorders, Neurobiol Aging, 26, 645, 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2004.06.013 Charlton, 2006, White matter damage on diffusion tensor imaging correlates with age-related cognitive decline, Neurology, 66, 217, 10.1212/01.wnl.0000194256.15247.83 Christman, 2010, Cranial volume, mild cognitive deficits, and functional limitations associated with diabetes in a community sample, Arch Clin Neuropsychol, 25, 49, 10.1093/arclin/acp091 Cohen, 1988 Colberg, 2008, Physical activity participation may offset some of the negative impact of diabetes on cognitive function, J Am Med Dir Assoc, 9, 434, 10.1016/j.jamda.2008.03.014 Cordonnier, 2007, Spontaneous brain microbleeds: systematic review, subgroup analyses and standards for study design and reporting, Brain, 130, 1988, 10.1093/brain/awl387 Corrigan, 1987, Relationships between parts A and B of the Trail Making Test, J Clin Psychol, 43, 402, 10.1002/1097-4679(198707)43:4<402::AID-JCLP2270430411>3.0.CO;2-E Cosway, 2001, Cognitive function and information processing in type 2 diabetes, Diabet Med, 18, 803, 10.1046/j.1464-5491.2001.00577.x Cox, 2005, Relationships between hyperglycemia and cognitive performance among adults with type 1 and type 2 diabetes, Diabetes Care, 28, 71, 10.2337/diacare.28.1.71 Craft, 2012, Intranasal insulin therapy for Alzheimer disease and amnestic mild cognitive impairment: a pilot clinical trial, Arch Neurol, 69, 29, 10.1001/archneurol.2011.233 Cukierman, 2005, Cognitive decline and dementia in diabetes – systematic overview of prospective observational studies, Diabetologia, 48, 2460, 10.1007/s00125-005-0023-4 Cukierman-Yaffe, 2009, Relationship between baseline glycemic control and cognitive function in individuals with type 2 diabetes and other cardiovascular risk factors: the action to control cardiovascular risk in diabetes-memory in diabetes (ACCORD-MIND) trial, Diabetes Care, 32, 221, 10.2337/dc08-1153 DCCT Research Group, 1996, Effects of intensive diabetes therapy on neuropsychological function in adults in the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial, Ann Intern Med, 124, 379, 10.7326/0003-4819-124-4-199602150-00001 de Bresser, 2010, Microvascular determinants of cognitive decline and brain volume change in elderly patients with type 2 diabetes, Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord, 30, 381, 10.1159/000321354 de Bresser, 2010, Progression of cerebral atrophy and white matter hyperintensities in patients with type 2 diabetes, Diabetes Care, 33, 1309, 10.2337/dc09-1923 de Galan, 2009, Cognitive function and risks of cardiovascular disease and hypoglycaemia in patients with type 2 diabetes: the Action in Diabetes and Vascular Disease: Preterax and Diamicron Modified Release Controlled Evaluation (ADVANCE) Trial, Diabetologia, 52, 2328, 10.1007/s00125-009-1484-7 de Groot, 2002, Periventricular cerebral white matter lesions predict rate of cognitive decline, Ann Neurol, 52, 335, 10.1002/ana.10294 Deary, 1996, Severe hypoglycaemia and cognitive impairment in diabetes, BMJ, 313, 767, 10.1136/bmj.313.7060.767 Deary, 1993, Severe hypoglycemia and intelligence in adult patients with insulin-treated diabetes, Diabetes, 42, 341, 10.2337/diab.42.2.341 Deelman, 1981 den Heijer, 2003, Type 2 diabetes and atrophy of medial temporal lobe structures on brain MRI, Diabetologia, 46, 1604, 10.1007/s00125-003-1235-0 Desmond, 1993, Risk factors for cerebrovascular disease as correlates of cognitive function in a stroke-free cohort, Arch Neurol, 50, 162, 10.1001/archneur.1993.00540020040015 Desrocher, 2004, Neurocognitive correlates of type 1 diabetes mellitus in childhood, Child Neuropsychol, 10, 36, 10.1076/chin.10.1.36.26241 Devore, 2009, Dietary fat intake and cognitive decline in women with type 2 diabetes, Diabetes Care, 32, 635, 10.2337/dc08-1741 Dey, 1997, Cognitive function in younger type II diabetes, Diabetes Care, 20, 32, 10.2337/diacare.20.1.32 Dik, 2007, Contribution of metabolic syndrome components to cognition in older individuals, Diabetes Care, 30, 2655, 10.2337/dc06-1190 Ding, 2010, Diabetic retinopathy and cognitive decline in older people with type 2 diabetes: the Edinburgh Type 2 Diabetes Study, Diabetes, 59, 2883, 10.2337/db10-0752 Dore, 2009, Presence of the APOE epsilon4 allele modifies the relationship between type 2 diabetes and cognitive performance: the Maine-Syracuse Study, Diabetologia, 52, 2551, 10.1007/s00125-009-1497-2 Edland, 2004, Insulin-degrading enzyme, apolipoprotein E, and Alzheimer's disease, J Mol Neurosci, 23, 213, 10.1385/JMN:23:3:213 Edland, 2003, Insulin degrading enzyme (IDE) genetic variants and risk of Alzheimer's disease: evidence of effect modification by apolipoprotein E (APOE), Neurosci Lett, 345, 21, 10.1016/S0304-3940(03)00488-9 Egede, 2002, Modifiable cardiovascular risk factors in adults with diabetes: prevalence and missed opportunities for physician counseling, Arch Intern Med, 162, 427, 10.1001/archinte.162.4.427 Elias, 1997, NIDDM and blood pressure as risk factors for poor cognitive performance. The Framingham Study, Diabetes Care, 20, 1388, 10.2337/diacare.20.9.1388 Euser, 2010, A prospective analysis of elevated fasting glucose levels and cognitive function in older people: results from PROSPER and the Rotterdam Study, Diabetes, 59, 1601, 10.2337/db09-0568 Fazekas, 1987, MR signal abnormalities at 1.5T in Alzheimer's dementia and normal aging, Am J Roentgenol, 149, 351, 10.2214/ajr.149.2.351 Feart, 2009, Adherence to a Mediterranean diet, cognitive decline, and risk of dementia, JAMA, 302, 638, 10.1001/jama.2009.1146 Ferguson, 2003, Cognitive ability and brain structure in type 1 diabetes: relation to microangiopathy and preceding severe hypoglycemia, Diabetes, 52, 149, 10.2337/diabetes.52.1.149 Feskens, 1994, Apolipoprotein e4 allele and cognitive decline in elderly men, BMJ, 309, 1202, 10.1136/bmj.309.6963.1202 Folstein, 1975, Mini-mental state. A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician, J Psychiatr Res, 12, 189, 10.1016/0022-3956(75)90026-6 Fontbonne, 2001, Changes in cognitive abilities over a 4-year period are unfavorably affected in elderly diabetic subjects: results of the Epidemiology of Vascular Aging Study, Diabetes Care, 24, 366, 10.2337/diacare.24.2.366 Freitas, 2013, Montreal cognitive assessment: validation study for mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer disease, Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord, 27, 37, 10.1097/WAD.0b013e3182420bfe Frolich, 1998, Brain insulin and insulin receptors in aging and sporadic Alzheimer's disease, J Neural Transm, 105, 423, 10.1007/s007020050068 Fuh, 2007, Glucose tolerance status and cognitive impairment in early middle-aged women, Diabet Med, 24, 788, 10.1111/j.1464-5491.2007.02170.x Gasparini, 2003, Potential roles of insulin and IGF-1 in Alzheimer's disease, Trends Neurosci, 26, 404, 10.1016/S0166-2236(03)00163-2 Gispen, 2000, Cognition and synaptic plasticity in diabetes mellitus, Trends Neurosci, 23, 542, 10.1016/S0166-2236(00)01656-8 Gold, 2010, Rosiglitazone monotherapy in mild-to-moderate Alzheimer's disease: results from a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase III study, Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord, 30, 131, 10.1159/000318845 Gomez, 2012, Intranasal treatment of neurodegenerative diseases and stroke, Front Biosci (Schol Ed), 4, 74, 10.2741/s252 Gouw, 2011, Heterogeneity of small vessel disease: a systematic review of MRI and histopathology correlations, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 82, 126, 10.1136/jnnp.2009.204685 Greenberg, 2009, Cerebral microbleeds: a guide to detection and interpretation, Lancet Neurol, 8, 165, 10.1016/S1474-4422(09)70013-4 Gregg, 2000, Is diabetes associated with cognitive impairment and cognitive decline among older women? Study of Osteoporotic Fractures Research Group, Arch Intern Med, 160, 174, 10.1001/archinte.160.2.174 Grodstein, 2001, Type 2 diabetes and cognitive function in community-dwelling elderly women, Diabetes Care, 24, 1060, 10.2337/diacare.24.6.1060 Haan, 1999, The role of APOE epsilon4 in modulating effects of other risk factors for cognitive decline in elderly persons, JAMA, 282, 40, 10.1001/jama.282.1.40 Hamer, 2009, Physical activity and risk of neurodegenerative disease: a systematic review of prospective evidence, Psychol Med, 39, 3, 10.1017/S0033291708003681 Hassing, 2004, Comorbid type 2 diabetes mellitus and hypertension exacerbates cognitive decline: evidence from a longitudinal study, Age Ageing, 33, 355, 10.1093/ageing/afh100 Irie, 2008, Enhanced risk for Alzheimer disease in persons with type 2 diabetes and APOE epsilon4: the Cardiovascular Health Study Cognition Study, Arch Neurol, 65, 89, 10.1001/archneurol.2007.29 Jacobson, 2002, Diabetes, the brain, and behavior: is there a biological mechanism underlying the association between diabetes and depression?, Int Rev Neurobiol, 51, 455, 10.1016/S0074-7742(02)51013-8 Jacobson, 2007, Long-term effect of diabetes and its treatment on cognitive function, N Engl J Med, 356, 1842, 10.1056/NEJMoa066397 Jacobson, 2010, The associations of apolipoprotein E and angiotensin-converting enzyme polymorphisms and cognitive function in type 1 diabetes based on an 18-year follow-up of the DCCT cohort, Diabet Med, 27, 15, 10.1111/j.1464-5491.2009.02885.x Jacobson, 2011, Biomedical risk factors for decreased cognitive functioning in type 1 diabetes: an 18 year follow-up of the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (DCCT) cohort, Diabetologia, 54, 245, 10.1007/s00125-010-1883-9 Jolivalt, 2008, Defective insulin signaling pathway and increased glycogen synthase kinase-3 activity in the brain of diabetic mice: parallels with Alzheimer's disease and correction by insulin, J Neurosci Res, 86, 3265, 10.1002/jnr.21787 Jones, 2008, Studying connections in the living human brain with diffusion MRI, Cortex, 44, 936, 10.1016/j.cortex.2008.05.002 Jongen, 2008, Structural brain imaging in diabetes: a methodological perspective, Eur J Pharmacol, 585, 208, 10.1016/j.ejphar.2007.11.085 Kadoi, 2005, Risk factors for cognitive dysfunction after coronary artery bypass graft surgery in patients with type 2 diabetes, J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg, 129, 576, 10.1016/j.jtcvs.2004.07.012 Kalmijn, 1997, Dietary fat intake and the risk of incident dementia in the Rotterdam Study, Ann Neurol, 42, 776, 10.1002/ana.410420514 Kalmijn, 2000, Metabolic cardiovascular syndrome and risk of dementia in Japanese-American elderly men. The Honolulu-Asia Aging Study, Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 20, 2255, 10.1161/01.ATV.20.10.2255 Kanaya, 2004, Change in cognitive function by glucose tolerance status in older adults: a 4-year prospective study of the Rancho Bernardo Study cohort, Arch Intern Med, 164, 1327, 10.1001/archinte.164.12.1327 Katon, 2012, Association of depression with increased risk of dementia in patients with type 2 diabetes. The Diabetes and Aging Study, Arch Gen Psychiatry, 69, 410, 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.154 Kilander, 1997, Cognitive function, vascular risk factors and education. A cross-sectional study based on a cohort of 70-year-old men, J Intern Med, 242, 313, 10.1046/j.1365-2796.1997.00196.x Kloppenborg, 2008, Diabetes and other vascular risk factors for dementia: which factor matters most? A systematic review, Eur J Pharmacol, 585, 97, 10.1016/j.ejphar.2008.02.049 Knopman, 2001, Cardiovascular risk factors and cognitive decline in middle-aged adults, Neurology, 56, 42, 10.1212/WNL.56.1.42 Kodl, 2008, Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) identifies deficits in white matter microstructure in subjects with type 1 diabetes mellitus that correlate with reduced neurocognitive function, Diabetes, 57, 3083, 10.2337/db08-0724 Koekkoek, 2012, Intensive multifactorial treatment and cognitive functioning in screen-detected type 2 diabetes – the ADDITION-Netherlands Study: a cluster-randomized trial, J Neurol Sci, 314, 71, 10.1016/j.jns.2011.10.028 Komulainen, 2007, Metabolic syndrome and cognitive function: a population-based follow-up study in elderly women, Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord, 23, 29, 10.1159/000096636 Korf, 2007, Diabetes mellitus, hypertension and medial temporal lobe atrophy: the LADIS study, Diabet Med, 24, 166, 10.1111/j.1464-5491.2007.02049.x Krabbe, 2007, Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and type 2 diabetes, Diabetologia, 50, 431, 10.1007/s00125-006-0537-4 Kramer, 2007, Longitudinal MRI and cognitive change in healthy elderly, Neuropsychology, 21, 412, 10.1037/0894-4105.21.4.412 Kumari, 2005, Diabetes and cognitive function in a middle-aged cohort: findings from the Whitehall II study, Neurology, 65, 1597, 10.1212/01.wnl.0000184521.80820.e4 Launer, 1999, Rates and risk factors for dementia and Alzheimer's disease: results from EURODEM pooled analyses. EURODEM Incidence Research Group and Work Groups. European Studies of Dementia, Neurology, 52, 78, 10.1212/WNL.52.1.78 Launer, 2011, Effects of intensive glucose lowering on brain structure and function in people with type 2 diabetes (ACCORD MIND): a randomised open-label substudy, Lancet Neurol, 10, 969, 10.1016/S1474-4422(11)70188-0 Lawson, 1984, Neuropsychological function in diabetic patients with neuropathy, Br J Psychiatry, 145, 263, 10.1192/bjp.145.3.263 Lehmann, 2005, Large meta-analysis establishes the ACE insertion-deletion polymorphism as a marker of Alzheimer's disease, Am J Epidemiol, 162, 305, 10.1093/aje/kwi202 Lezak, 2004 Li, 2007, Common pathological processes in Alzheimer disease and type 2 diabetes: a review, Brain Res Rev, 56, 384, 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.09.001 Li, 2007, Alzheimer-like changes in rat models of spontaneous diabetes, Diabetes, 56, 1817, 10.2337/db07-0171 Ligthart, 2010, Treatment of cardiovascular risk factors to prevent cognitive decline and dementia: a systematic review, Vasc Health Risk Manag, 6, 775, 10.2147/VHRM.S7343 Lindeman, 2001, A biethnic community survey of cognition in participants with type 2 diabetes, impaired glucose tolerance, and normal glucose tolerance: the New Mexico Elder Health Survey, Diabetes Care, 24, 1567, 10.2337/diacare.24.9.1567 Lobnig, 2006, Hippocampal volume and cognitive performance in long-standing type 1 diabetic patients without macrovascular complications, Diabet Med, 23, 32, 10.1111/j.1464-5491.2005.01716.x Longstreth, 1998, Lacunar infarcts defined by magnetic resonance imaging of 3660 elderly people: the Cardiovascular Health Study, Arch Neurol, 55, 1217, 10.1001/archneur.55.9.1217 Lu, 2009, Diabetes and the risk of multi-system aging phenotypes: a systematic review and meta-analysis, PLoS One, 4, e4144, 10.1371/journal.pone.0004144 Luchsinger, 2001, Diabetes mellitus and risk of Alzheimer's disease and dementia with stroke in a multiethnic cohort, Am J Epidemiol, 154, 635, 10.1093/aje/154.7.635 Luchsinger, 2007, Relation of diabetes to mild cognitive impairment, Arch Neurol, 64, 570, 10.1001/archneur.64.4.570 Manolio, 1994, Magnetic resonance abnormalities and cardiovascular disease in older adults. The Cardiovascular Health Study, Stroke, 25, 318, 10.1161/01.STR.25.2.318 Manschot, 2007, Metabolic and vascular determinants of impaired cognitive performance and abnormalities on brain magnetic resonance imaging in patients with type 2 diabetes, Diabetologia, 50, 2388, 10.1007/s00125-007-0792-z Manschot, 2008, Peripheral and central neurologic complications in type 2 diabetes mellitus: no association in individual patients, J Neurol Sci, 264, 157, 10.1016/j.jns.2007.08.011 McKhann, 2011, The diagnosis of dementia due to Alzheimer's disease: recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer’s Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer's disease, Alzheimers Dement, 7, 263, 10.1016/j.jalz.2011.03.005 Middleton, 2010, Targets for the prevention of dementia, J Alzheimers Dis, 20, 915, 10.3233/JAD-2010-091657 Mitchell, 2010, Screening and case finding tools for the detection of dementia. Part I: evidence-based meta-analysis of multidomain tests, Am J Geriatr Psychiatry, 18, 759, 10.1097/JGP.0b013e3181cdecb8 Muller, 2007, Metabolic syndrome and dementia risk in a multiethnic elderly cohort, Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord, 24, 185, 10.1159/000105927 Naor, 1997, Cognitive function in elderly non-insulin-dependent diabetic patients before and after inpatient treatment for metabolic control, J Diabetes Complications, 11, 40, 10.1016/1056-8727(95)00106-9 Nelson, 2008, Human cerebral neuropathology of type 2 diabetes mellitus, Biochim Biophys Acta, 1792, 454, 10.1016/j.bbadis.2008.08.005 Northam, 2006, Therapy insight: the impact of type 1 diabetes on brain development and function, Nat Clin Pract Neurol, 2, 78, 10.1038/ncpneuro0097 Nouwen, 2010, Type 2 diabetes mellitus as a risk factor for the onset of depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis, Diabetologia, 53, 2480, 10.1007/s00125-010-1874-x Okura, 2009, Association between cognitive function and social support with glycemic control in adults with diabetes mellitus, J Am Geriatr Soc, 57, 1816, 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2009.02431.x Ott, 1999, Diabetes mellitus and the risk of dementia: the Rotterdam Study, Neurology, 53, 1937, 10.1212/WNL.53.9.1937 Pan, 2010, Bidirectional association between depression and type 2 diabetes mellitus in women, Arch Intern Med, 170, 1884, 10.1001/archinternmed.2010.356 Pantoni, 2010, Cerebral small vessel disease: from pathogenesis and clinical characteristics to therapeutic challenges, Lancet Neurol, 9, 689, 10.1016/S1474-4422(10)70104-6 Paranthaman, 2010, Vascular function in older adults with depressive disorder, Biol Psychiatry, 68, 133, 10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.04.017 Peila, 2002, Type 2 diabetes, APOE gene, and the risk for dementia and related pathologies: the Honolulu-Asia Aging Study, Diabetes, 51, 1256, 10.2337/diabetes.51.4.1256 Petersen, 2001, Practice parameter: early detection of dementia: mild cognitive impairment (an evidence-based review). Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology, Neurology, 56, 1133, 10.1212/WNL.56.9.1133 Petersen, 2010, Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI): clinical characterization, Neurology, 74, 201, 10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181cb3e25 Profenno, 2009, Meta-analysis of Alzheimer's disease risk with obesity, diabetes, and related disorders, Biol Psychiatry, 67, 505, 10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.02.013 Qiu, 2006, Insulin, insulin-degrading enzyme and amyloid-beta peptide in Alzheimer's disease: review and hypothesis, Neurobiol Aging, 27, 190, 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2005.01.004 Qiu, 2001, The influence of education on clinically diagnosed dementia incidence and mortality data from the Kungsholmen project, Arch Neurol, 58, 2034, 10.1001/archneur.58.12.2034 Raffaitin, 2011, Metabolic syndrome and cognitive decline in French elders: the Three-City Study, Neurology, 76, 518, 10.1212/WNL.0b013e31820b7656 Reaven, 1990, Relationship between hyperglycemia and cognitive function in older NIDDM patients, Diabetes Care, 13, 16, 10.2337/diacare.13.1.16 Reger, 2008, Intranasal insulin improves cognition and modulates beta-amyloid in early AD, Neurology, 70, 440, 10.1212/01.WNL.0000265401.62434.36 Reijmer, 2010, Cognitive dysfunction in patients with type 2 diabetes, Diabetes Metab Res Rev, 26, 507, 10.1002/dmrr.1112 Reijmer, 2011, Accelerated cognitive decline in patients with type 2 diabetes: MRI correlates and risk factors, Diabetes Metab Res Rev, 27, 195, 10.1002/dmrr.1163 Risner, 2006, Efficacy of rosiglitazone in a genetically defined population with mild-to-moderate Alzheimer's disease, Pharmacogenomics J, 6, 246, 10.1038/sj.tpj.6500369 Ritchie, 2001, Classification criteria for mild cognitive impairment: a population-based validation study, Neurology, 56, 37, 10.1212/WNL.56.1.37 Rossor, 2010, The diagnosis of young-onset dementia, Lancet Neurol, 9, 793, 10.1016/S1474-4422(10)70159-9 Ruis, 2009, Cognition in the early stage of type 2 diabetes, Diabetes Care, 32, 1261, 10.2337/dc08-2143 Ryan, 2006, Why is cognitive dysfunction associated with the development of diabetes early in life? The diathesis hypothesis, Pediatr Diabetes, 7, 289, 10.1111/j.1399-5448.2006.00206.x Ryan, 1992, Psychomotor slowing is associated with distal symmetrical polyneuropathy in adults with diabetes mellitus, Diabetes, 41, 107, 10.2337/diab.41.1.107 Ryan, 2003, Cognitive efficiency declines over time in adults with type 1 diabetes: effects of micro- and macrovascular complications, Diabetologia, 46, 940, 10.1007/s00125-003-1128-2 Ryan, 2006, Improving metabolic control leads to better working memory in adults with type 2 diabetes, Diabetes Care, 29, 345, 10.2337/diacare.29.02.06.dc05-1626 Sachon, 1992, Cognitive function, insulin-dependent diabetes and hypoglycaemia, J Intern Med, 231, 471, 10.1111/j.1365-2796.1992.tb00962.x Savva, 2009, Age, neuropathology, and dementia, N Engl J Med, 360, 2302, 10.1056/NEJMoa0806142 Scarmeas, 2006, Mediterranean diet, Alzheimer disease, and vascular mediation, Arch Neurol, 63, 1709, 10.1001/archneur.63.12.noc60109 Scarmeas, 2009, Mediterranean diet and mild cognitive impairment, Arch Neurol, 66, 216 Scharre, 2010, Self-administered Gerocognitive Examination (SAGE): a brief cognitive assessment instrument for mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and early dementia, Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord, 24, 64, 10.1097/WAD.0b013e3181b03277 Scheltens, 1993, A semiquantative rating scale for the assessment of signal hyperintensities on magnetic resonance imaging, J Neurol Sci, 114, 7, 10.1016/0022-510X(93)90041-V Scheltens, 1997, Qualitative assessment of cerebral atrophy on MRI: inter- and intra-observer reproducibility in dementia and normal aging, Eur Neurol, 37, 95, 10.1159/000117417 Schramm, 2008, Diabetes patients requiring glucose-lowering therapy and nondiabetics with a prior myocardial infarction carry the same cardiovascular risk: a population study of 3.3 million people, Circulation, 117, 1945, 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.720847 Scott, 1998, The association of noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and cognitive function in an older cohort, J Am Geriatr Soc, 46, 1217, 10.1111/j.1532-5415.1998.tb04536.x Sinclair, 2000, Cognitive dysfunction in older subjects with diabetes mellitus: impact on diabetes self-management and use of care services. All Wales Research into Elderly (AWARE) Study, Diabetes Res Clin Pract, 50, 203, 10.1016/S0168-8227(00)00195-9 Smith, 2010, Aerobic exercise and neurocognitive performance: a meta-analytic review of randomized controlled trials, Psychosom Med, 72, 239, 10.1097/PSY.0b013e3181d14633 Sofi, 2011, Physical activity and risk of cognitive decline: a meta-analysis of prospective studies, J Intern Med, 269, 107, 10.1111/j.1365-2796.2010.02281.x Solfrizzi, 2004, Vascular risk factors, incidence of MCI, and rates of progression to dementia, Neurology, 63, 1882, 10.1212/01.WNL.0000144281.38555.E3 Stein, 2011, A randomized controlled trial of high-dose vitamin D2 followed by intranasal insulin in Alzheimer's disease, J Alzheimers Dis, 26, 477, 10.3233/JAD-2011-110149 Stroop, 1935, Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions, J Exp Psychol, 18, 643, 10.1037/h0054651 Tuokko, 2003, Five-year follow-up of cognitive impairment with no dementia, Arch Neurol, 60, 577, 10.1001/archneur.60.4.577 UK Hypoglycaemia Study Group, 2007, Risk of hypoglycaemia in types 1 and 2 diabetes: effects of treatment modalities and their duration, Diabetologia, 50, 1140, 10.1007/s00125-007-0599-y Umegaki, 2008, Factors associated with lower Mini Mental State Examination scores in elderly Japanese diabetes mellitus patients, Neurobiol Aging, 29, 1022, 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2007.02.004 U’Ren, 1990, The mental efficiency of the elderly person with type II diabetes mellitus, J Am Geriatr Soc, 38, 505, 10.1111/j.1532-5415.1990.tb02398.x van Boxtel, 1998, The relation between morbidity and cognitive performance in a normal aging population, J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci, 53, M147, 10.1093/gerona/53A.2.M147 van de Pol, 2009 van den Berg, 2006, Type 2 diabetes, cognitive function and dementia: vascular and metabolic determinants, Drugs Today (Barc), 42, 741, 10.1358/dot.2006.42.11.1003542 van den Berg, 2008, Cognitive functioning in elderly persons with type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome: the Hoorn Study, Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord, 26, 261, 10.1159/000160959 van den Berg, 2009, Type 2 diabetes mellitus, hypertension, dyslipidemia and obesity: a systematic comparison of their impact on cognition, Biochim Biophys Acta, 1792, 470, 10.1016/j.bbadis.2008.09.004 van den Berg, 2010, A 4 year follow-up study of cognitive functioning in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, Diabetologia, 53, 58, 10.1007/s00125-009-1571-9 van Elderen, 2010, Progression of brain atrophy and cognitive decline in diabetes mellitus: a 3-year follow-up, Neurology, 75, 997, 10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181f25f06 van Harten, 2006, Brain imaging in patients with diabetes: a systematic review, Diabetes Care, 29, 2539, 10.2337/dc06-1637 van Harten, 2007, Cognitive impairment and MRI correlates in the elderly patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, Age Ageing, 36, 164, 10.1093/ageing/afl180 Vanhanen, 1997, Risk for non-insulin-dependent diabetes in the normoglycaemic elderly is associated with impaired cognitive function, NeuroReport, 8, 1527, 10.1097/00001756-199704140-00041 Vanhanen, 1998, Cognitive function in an elderly population with persistent impaired glucose tolerance, Diabetes Care, 21, 398, 10.2337/diacare.21.3.398 Vanhanen, 1999, Type-2 diabetes and cognitive function in a non-demented population, Acta Neurol Scand, 100, 97, 10.1111/j.1600-0404.1999.tb01045.x Vermeer, 2002, Prevalence and risk factors of silent brain infarcts in the population-based Rotterdam Scan Study, Stroke, 33, 21, 10.1161/hs0102.101629 Vermeer, 2007, Silent brain infarcts: a systematic review, Lancet Neurol, 6, 611, 10.1016/S1474-4422(07)70170-9 Wahlin, 2002, Cognitive performance in very old diabetic persons: the impact of semantic structure, preclinical dementia, and impending death, Neuropsychology, 16, 208, 10.1037/0894-4105.16.2.208 Watari, 2006, Cognitive function in adults with type 2 diabetes and major depression, Arch Clin Neuropsychol, 21, 787, 10.1016/j.acn.2006.06.014 Watson, 2005, Preserved cognition in patients with early Alzheimer disease and amnestic mild cognitive impairment during treatment with rosiglitazone: a preliminary study, Am J Geriatr Psychiatry, 13, 950 Wechsler, 1997 Weiner, 2008, Albuminuria, Cognitive Functioning, and White Matter Hyperintensities in Homebound Elders, Am J Kidney Dis, 53, 438, 10.1053/j.ajkd.2008.08.022 Werring, 2004, Cognitive dysfunction in patients with cerebral microbleeds on T2*-weighted gradient-echo MRI, Brain, 127, 2265, 10.1093/brain/awh253 Wessels, 2007, Cognitive performance in type 1 diabetes patients is associated with cerebral white matter volume, Diabetologia, 50, 1763, 10.1007/s00125-007-0714-0 Whitmer, 2009, Hypoglycemic episodes and risk of dementia in older patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, JAMA, 301, 1565, 10.1001/jama.2009.460 Whitwell, 2007, Patterns of atrophy differ among specific subtypes of mild cognitive impairment, Arch Neurol, 64, 1130, 10.1001/archneur.64.8.1130 Winblad, 2004, Mild cognitive impairment – beyond controversies, towards a consensus: report of the International Working Group on Mild Cognitive Impairment, J Intern Med, 256, 240, 10.1111/j.1365-2796.2004.01380.x Wong, 2002, Retinal microvascular abnormalities and cognitive impairment in middle-aged persons: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study, Stroke, 33, 1487, 10.1161/01.STR.0000016789.56668.43 Wong, 2003, Retinal microvascular changes and MRI signs of cerebral atrophy in healthy, middle-aged people, Neurology, 61, 806, 10.1212/01.WNL.0000086372.05488.8D Wredling, 1990, Permanent neuropsychological impairment after recurrent episodes of severe hypoglycaemia in man, Diabetologia, 33, 152, 10.1007/BF00404042 Xu, 2004, Diabetes mellitus and risk of dementia in the Kungsholmen project: a 6-year follow-up study, Neurology, 63, 1181, 10.1212/01.WNL.0000140291.86406.D1 Yaffe, 2004, Diabetes, impaired fasting glucose, and development of cognitive impairment in older women, Neurology, 63, 658, 10.1212/01.WNL.0000134666.64593.BA Yaffe, 2004, The metabolic syndrome, inflammation, and risk of cognitive decline, JAMA, 292, 2237, 10.1001/jama.292.18.2237 Yaffe, 2007, Metabolic syndrome and cognitive decline in elderly Latinos: findings from the Sacramento Area Latino Study of Aging study, J Am Geriatr Soc, 55, 758, 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2007.01139.x Zhao, 2001, Role of insulin and insulin receptor in learning and memory, Mol Cell Endocrinol, 177, 125, 10.1016/S0303-7207(01)00455-5