Cognitive bias as an indicator of animal emotion and welfare: Emerging evidence and underlying mechanisms

Adolphs, 2002, Neural systems for recognizing emotion, Curr. Opin. Neurobiol., 12, 169, 10.1016/S0959-4388(02)00301-X

Australian Government, 2008

Baars, 2001, There are no known differences in brain mechanisms of consciousness between humans and other mammals, Anim. Welf., 10, S31, 10.1017/S0962728600023496

Baldock, 1988, Behaviour and seasonal variation in heart rate of domestic sheep, Ovis aries, Anim. Behav., 36, 35, 10.1016/S0003-3472(88)80247-1

Bateson, 2007, Performance on a categorisation task suggests that removal of environmental enrichment induces ‘pessimism’ in captive European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris), Anim. Welf., 16, 33, 10.1017/S0962728600031705

Bechara, 1994, Insensitivity to future consequences following damage to human prefrontal cortex, Cognition, 50, 7, 10.1016/0010-0277(94)90018-3

Bechara, 1997, Deciding advantageously before knowing the advantageous strategy, Science, 275, 1293, 10.1126/science.275.5304.1293

Bermond, 2001, A neuropsychological and evolutionary approach to animal consciousness and animal suffering, Anim. Welf., 10, S47, 10.1017/S0962728600023514

Berridge, 2003, Pleasures of the brain, Brain Cogn., 52, 106, 10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00014-9

Berridge, 2007, The debate over dopamine's role in reward: the case for incentive salience, Psychopharmacology (Berl.), 191, 391, 10.1007/s00213-006-0578-x

Bethell, 2007, The effect of emotion state on responses to social stimuli by rhesus macaques, Primate Eye, 92, 5

Bishop, 2004, Prefrontal cortical function and anxiety: controlling attention to threat-related stimuli, Nat. Neurosci., 7, 184, 10.1038/nn1173

Bishop, 2007, Neurocognitive mechanisms of anxiety: an integrative account, Trends Cogn. Sci., 11, 307, 10.1016/j.tics.2007.05.008

Blanchette, 2007, Anxiety and the interpretation of ambiguous facial expressions: the influence of contextual cues, Q. J. Exp. Psychol., 60, 1101, 10.1080/17470210600890511

Bogacz, 2007, Optimal decision-making theories: linking neurobiology with behaviour, Trends Cogn. Sci., 11, 118, 10.1016/j.tics.2006.12.006

Bogacz, 2007, The basal ganglia and cortex implement optimal decision making between alternative actions, Neural Comput., 19, 442, 10.1162/neco.2007.19.2.442

Boissy, 2007, Assessment of positive emotions in animals to improve their welfare, Physiol. Behav., 92, 375, 10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.02.003

Bower, 1981, Mood and memory, Am. Psychol., 36, 129, 10.1037/0003-066X.36.2.129

Bradley, 1995, Implicit and explicit memory for emotion congruent information in depression and anxiety, Behav. Res. Ther., 33, 755, 10.1016/0005-7967(95)00029-W

Breiter, 2001, Functional imaging of neural responses to expectancy and experience of monetary gains and losses, Neuron, 30, 619, 10.1016/S0896-6273(01)00303-8

Brilot, 2009, Can we use startlings’ aversion to eyespots as the basis for a novel ‘cognitive bias’ task?, Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 118, 182, 10.1016/j.applanim.2009.02.015

Burke, 1992, Autobiographical memory and clinical anxiety, Cogn. Emotion, 6, 23, 10.1080/02699939208411056

Burman, 2006, A multidisciplinary study of the long-term effects of environmental enrichment on laboratory rat welfare, 72

Burman, 2007, Ultrasonic vocalizations as indicators of welfare for laboratory rats (Rattus norvegicus), Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 104, 116, 10.1016/j.applanim.2006.04.028

Burman, 2008, A spatial judgement task to determine background emotional state in laboratory rats, Rattus norvegicus, Anim. Behav., 76, 801, 10.1016/j.anbehav.2008.02.014

Burman, 2008, Sensitivity to reward loss as an indicator of animal emotion and welfare, Biol. Lett., 4, 330, 10.1098/rsbl.2008.0113

Burman, O.H.P., Parker, R.M.A., Paul, E.S., Mendl, M., submitted. Anxiety induced cognitive bias in non-human animals. Physiol. Behav.

Cabanac, 1992, Pleasure: the common currency, J. Theor. Biol., 155, 173, 10.1016/S0022-5193(05)80594-6

Cabib, 2006, The neurobiology of stereotypy II. The role of stress, 227

Cabib, 1996, Stress, depression and the mesolimbic dopamine system, Psychopharmacology (Berl.), 128, 331, 10.1007/s002130050142

Call, 2001, Do apes and children know what they have seen?, Anim. Cogn., 4, 201

Camerer, 1992, Recent developments in modeling preferences—uncertainty and ambiguity, J. Risk Uncertainty, 5, 325, 10.1007/BF00122575

Camille, 2004, The involvement of the orbitofrontal cortex in the experience of regret, Science, 304, 1167, 10.1126/science.1094550

Cardinal, 2002, Emotion and motivation: the role of the amygdala, ventral striatum, and prefrontal cortex, Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 26, 321, 10.1016/S0149-7634(02)00007-6

Carruthers, 1989, Brute experience, J. Philos., 89, 258, 10.2307/2027110

Casey, 2008, The use of ‘cognitive bias’ as an indicator of affective state in the domestic dog, 4

Changizi, 2001, Thirst modulates a perception, Perception, 30, 1489, 10.1068/p3266

Chiu, 2007, Neural evidence for enhanced error detection in major depressive disorder, Am. J. Pyschiatry, 164, 608, 10.1176/appi.ajp.164.4.608

Cisek, 2007, Neurobiology—the currency of guessing, Nature, 447, 1061, 10.1038/4471061a

Clark, 1998, Classical conditioning and brain systems: the role of awareness, Science, 280, 77, 10.1126/science.280.5360.77

Clore, 2000, Cognition in emotion: always, sometimes or never?, 24

Coricelli, 2007, Brain, emotion and decision making: the paradigmatic example of regret, Trends Cogn. Sci., 11, 258, 10.1016/j.tics.2007.04.003

Critchley, 2001, Neural activity in the human brain relating to uncertainty and arousal during anticipation, Neuron, 29, 537, 10.1016/S0896-6273(01)00225-2

Cryan, 2004, In search of a depressed mouse: utility of models for studying depression-related behavior in genetically modified mice, Mol. Psychiat., 9, 326, 10.1038/sj.mp.4001457

Damasio, 2000

Daw, 2006, The computational neurobiology of learning and reward, Curr. Opin. Neurobiol., 16, 199, 10.1016/j.conb.2006.03.006

Daw, 2006, Cortical substrates for exploratory decisions in humans, Nature, 441, 876, 10.1038/nature04766

Dawkins, 1990, From an animal's point of view: motivation, fitness and animal welfare, Behav. Brain Sci., 13, 1, 10.1017/S0140525X00077104

DeRubeis, 2008, Cognitive therapy versus medication for depression: treatment outcomes and neural mechanisms, Nat. Rev. Neurosci., 9, 788, 10.1038/nrn2345

Denny, 1992, Affective valence and memory in depression: dissociation of recall and fragment completion, J. Abnorm. Psychol., 101, 575, 10.1037/0021-843X.101.3.575

Desiré, 2002, Emotions in farm animals: a new approach to animal welfare in applied ethology, Behav. Process., 60, 165, 10.1016/S0376-6357(02)00081-5

Desiré, 2004, On the way to assess emotions in animals: do lambs (Ovis aries) evaluate an event through its suddenness, novelty, or unpredictability?, J. Comp. Psychol., 118, 363, 10.1037/0735-7036.118.4.363

Desiré, 2006, Appraisal process in sheep (Ovis aries): interactive effect of suddenness and unfamiliarity on cardiac and behavioral responses, J. Comp. Psychol., 120, 280, 10.1037/0735-7036.120.3.280

Dreher, 2006, Neural coding of distinct statistical properties of reward information in humans, Cereb. Cortex, 16, 561, 10.1093/cercor/bhj004

Dunlop, 2007, The role of dopamine in the pathophysiology of depression, Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 64, 327, 10.1001/archpsyc.64.3.327

Ekman, 1984, Expression and the nature of emotion, 329

Ellsberg, 1961, Risk, ambiguity, and the savage axioms, Q. J. Econ., 75, 643, 10.2307/1884324

Engel, 2001, Dynamic predictions: oscillations and synchrony in top-down processing, Nat. Rev. Neurosci., 2, 704, 10.1038/35094565

Ernst, 2005, Neurobiology of decision making: a selective review from a neurocognitive and clinical perspective, Biol. Psychiatry, 58, 597, 10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.06.004

European Union, 1997

Eysenck, 1991, Bias in interpretation of ambiguous sentences related to threat and anxiety, J. Abnorm. Psychol., 100, 144, 10.1037/0021-843X.100.2.144

Fernandes, 1996, The influence of open arm ledges and maze experience in the elevated plus-maze, Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav., 54, 31, 10.1016/0091-3057(95)02171-X

Fiorillo, 2003, Discrete coding of reward probability and uncertainty by dopamine neurons, Science, 299, 1898, 10.1126/science.1077349

Flaherty, 1996

Frijda, 1988, The laws of emotion, Am. Psychol., 43, 349, 10.1037/0003-066X.43.5.349

Garner, 2003, Stereotypies in caged parrots, schizophrenia and autism: evidence for a common mechanism, Behav. Brain Res., 145, 125, 10.1016/S0166-4328(03)00115-3

Ghirlander, 2003, A century of generalization, Anim. Behav., 66, 15, 10.1006/anbe.2003.2174

Grandjean, 2008, Unpacking the cognitive architecture of emotion processes, Emotion, 8, 341, 10.1037/1528-3542.8.3.341

Griffin, 1992

Griffin, 1998, From cognition to consciousness, Anim. Cogn., 1, 3, 10.1007/s100710050002

Hajcak, 2004, Error-related psychophysiology and negative affect, Brain Cogn., 56, 189, 10.1016/j.bandc.2003.11.001

Harding, 2004, Animal behavior—cognitive bias and affective state, Nature, 427, 312, 10.1038/427312a

Haselton, 2006, The paranoid optimist: an integrative evolutionary model of cognitive biases, Pers. Soc. Psychol. Rev., 10, 47, 10.1207/s15327957pspr1001_3

Herry, 2007, Processing of temporal unpredictability in human and animal amygdala, J. Neurosci., 27, 5958, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5218-06.2007

Hsu, 2005, Neural systems responding to degrees of uncertainty in human decision-making, Science, 310, 1680, 10.1126/science.1115327

Janczak, 2002, Factor analysis of behaviour in the porcine and murine elevated plus-maze models of anxiety, Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 77, 155, 10.1016/S0168-1591(02)00030-8

Kacelnik, 1996, Risky theories—the effects of variance on foraging decisions, Am. Zool., 36, 402, 10.1093/icb/36.4.402

Kahn, 2002, The role of the amygdala in signaling prospective outcome of choice, Neuron, 33, 983, 10.1016/S0896-6273(02)00626-8

Kahneman, 1979, Prospect theory—analysis of decision under risk, Econometrica, 47, 263, 10.2307/1914185

Kennedy, 1992

Kliger, 2003, Mood-induced variation in risk preferences, J. Econ. Behav. Org., 52, 573, 10.1016/S0167-2681(03)00069-6

Knutson, 2002, Ultrasonic vocalizations as indices of affective states in rats, Psychol. Bull., 128, 961, 10.1037/0033-2909.128.6.961

Knutson, 2005, Distributed neural representation of expected value, J. Neurosci., 19, 4806, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0642-05.2005

Knutson, 2008, Anticipatory affect: neural correlates and consequences for choice, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B, 363, 3771, 10.1098/rstb.2008.0155

Krishnan, 2008, The molecular neurobiology of depression, Nature, 455, 894, 10.1038/nature07455

Krizan, 2007, The influence of outcome desirability on optimism, Psychol. Bull., 133, 95, 10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.95

Lang, 2000, Fear and anxiety: animal models and human cognitive psychophysiology, J. Affect. Disorders, 61, 137, 10.1016/S0165-0327(00)00343-8

Lawrence, 2008, Applied animal behaviour science: past, present and future prospects, Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 115, 1, 10.1016/j.applanim.2008.06.003

Lazarus, 1991, Cognition and motivation in emotion, Am. Psychol., 46, 352, 10.1037/0003-066X.46.4.352

LeDoux, 1996

Lehner, 1996

Leknes, 2008, A common neurobiology for pain and pleasure, Nat. Rev. Neurosci., 9, 314, 10.1038/nrn2333

Lerner, 2000, Beyond valence: toward a model of emotion-specific influences on judgement and choice, Cogn. Emotion, 14, 473, 10.1080/026999300402763

Lewis, 2005, Brain mechanisms for mood congruent memory facilitation, Neuroimage, 25, 1214, 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.11.053

Loewenstein, 2003, The role of affect in decision making, 619

Loewenstein, 2008, Neuroeconomics, Annu. Rev. Psychol., 59, 647, 10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093710

Loewenstein, 2001, Risk as feelings, Psychol. Bull., 127, 267, 10.1037/0033-2909.127.2.267

MacLeod, 2001, Reduced positive future-thinking in depression: cognitive and affective factors, Cogn. Emotion, 15, 99, 10.1080/02699930125776

MacLeod, 1997, Retrospective and prospective cognitions in anxiety and depression, Cogn. Emotion, 11, 467, 10.1080/026999397379881

MacLeod, 1996, Anxiety, depression, and the anticipation of future positive and negative experiences, J. Abnorm. Psychol., 105, 286, 10.1037/0021-843X.105.2.286

Macphail, 1998

Maner, 2007, Dispositional anxiety and risk-avoidant decision-making, Pers. Indiv. Diff., 42, 665, 10.1016/j.paid.2006.08.016

Marchant, 1995, The effect of agonistic social interactions on the heart rate of group-housed sows, Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 46, 49, 10.1016/0168-1591(95)00636-2

Matheson, 2008, Larger, enriched cages are associated with ‘optimistic’ response biases in captive European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris), Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 109, 374, 10.1016/j.applanim.2007.03.007

Mathews, 1998, A cognitive model of selective processing in anxiety, Cogn. Ther. Res., 22, 539, 10.1023/A:1018738019346

Mathews, 1994, Cognitive approaches to emotion and emotional disorders, Annu. Rev. Psychol., 45, 25, 10.1146/annurev.ps.45.020194.000325

Mathews, 1995, Effect of psychological treatment on cognitive bias in generalized anxiety disorder, Behav. Res. Ther., 33, 293, 10.1016/0005-7967(94)E0022-B

McHaffie, 2005, Subcortical loops through the basal ganglia, Trends Neurosci., 28, 401, 10.1016/j.tins.2005.06.006

McClure, 2003, A computational substrate for incentive salience, Trends Neurosci., 26, 423, 10.1016/S0166-2236(03)00177-2

McNamara, 1986, The common currency for behavioral decisions, Am. Nat., 127, 358, 10.1086/284489

Mendl, 1999, Performing under pressure: stress and cognitive function, Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 65, 221, 10.1016/S0168-1591(99)00088-X

Mendl, 2001, Assessing the welfare state, Nature, 410, 31, 10.1038/35065194

Mendl, 2004, Consciousness, emotion and animal welfare: insights from cognitive science, Anim. Welf., 13, S17, 10.1017/S0962728600014330

Mendl, 2006, Studies of emotion-cognition links in humans as a basis for developing new measures of animal emotion, 46

Miller, 2000, The prefrontal cortex and cognitive control, Nat. Rev. Neurosci., 1, 59, 10.1038/35036228

Mineka, 1992, Cognitive biases and the emotional disorders, Psychol. Sci., 3, 65, 10.1111/j.1467-9280.1992.tb00260.x

Mineka, 1998, Comorbidity of anxiety and unipolar mood disorders, Annu. Rev. Psychol., 49, 377, 10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.377

Miranda, 2007, Depression, generalized anxiety disorder, and certainty in pessimistic predictions about the future, Cogn. Ther. Res., 31, 71, 10.1007/s10608-006-9063-4

Mobbs, 2007, When fear is near: threat imminence elicits prefrontal-periaqueductal gray shifts in humans, Science, 317, 1079, 10.1126/science.1144298

Mogg, 1998, A cognitive-motivational analysis of anxiety, Behav. Res. Ther., 36, 809, 10.1016/S0005-7967(98)00063-1

Mogg, 2005, Attentional bias in generalized anxiety disorder versus depressive disorder, Cogn. Ther. Res., 29, 29, 10.1007/s10608-005-1646-y

Montague, 2002, Neural economics and the biological substrates of valuation, Neuron, 36, 265, 10.1016/S0896-6273(02)00974-1

Montague, 2007, Efficient statistics, common currencies and the problem of reward-harvesting, Trends Cogn. Sci., 11, 514, 10.1016/j.tics.2007.10.002

Murphy, 2006, Tryptophan supplementation induces a positive bias in the processing of emotional material in healthy female volunteers, Psychopharmacology (Berl.), 187, 121, 10.1007/s00213-006-0401-8

Murray, 2007, The amygdala, reward and emotion, Trends Cogn. Sci., 11, 489, 10.1016/j.tics.2007.08.013

Nader, 2007, Ambiguity and anxiety: when a glass half full is empty, Nat. Neurosci., 10, 807, 10.1038/nn0707-807

Nielsen, 1999, On the interpretation of feeding behaviour measures and the use of feeding rate as an indicator of social constraint, Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 63, 79, 10.1016/S0168-1591(99)00003-9

Nygren, 1996, The influence of positive affect on the decision rule in risky situations, Org. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process., 66, 59, 10.1006/obhd.1996.0038

Oatley, 1996

Oatley, 1987, Towards a cognitive theory of emotions, Cogn. Emotion, 1, 29, 10.1080/02699938708408362

Ortony, 1988

Padoa-Schioppa, 2006, Neurons in the orbitofrontal cortex encode economic value, Nature, 441, 223, 10.1038/nature04676

Panksepp, 1998

Panksepp, 2005, Affective consciousness: core emotional feelings in animals and humans, Conscious. Cogn., 14, 30, 10.1016/j.concog.2004.10.004

Papp, 2000, Antidepressant-like activity of amisulpride in two animal models of depression, J. Psychopharmacol. (Oxf.), 14, 46, 10.1177/026988110001400106

Parker, R.M.A., 2008. Cognitive bias as an indicator of emotional state in animals. Unpublished PhD Thesis. University of Bristol.

Paton, 2006, The primate amygdala represents the positive and negative value of visual stimuli during learning, Nature, 439, 865, 10.1038/nature04490

Patrick, 1993, Emotion in the criminal psychopath—startle reflex modulation, J. Abnorm. Psychol., 102, 82, 10.1037/0021-843X.102.1.82

Paul, 2005, Measuring emotional processes in animals: the utility of a cognitive approach, Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 29, 469, 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.01.002

Pecina, 2006, Hedonic hot spots in the brain, Neuroscientist, 12, 500, 10.1177/1073858406293154

Phillips, 1997, Effects of chronic mild stress on motivation for sucrose: mixed messages, Psychopharmacology (Berl.), 134, 361, 10.1007/s002130050469

Platt, 1999, Neural correlates of decision variables in parietal cortex, Nature, 400, 233, 10.1038/22268

Platt, 2008, Risky business: the neuroeconomics of decision making under uncertainty, Nat. Neurosci., 11, 398, 10.1038/nn2062

Plutchik, 1980

Porsolt, 2000, Animal models of depression: utility for transgenic research, Rev. Neurosci., 11, 53, 10.1515/REVNEURO.2000.11.1.53

Ramel, 2007, Amygdala reactivity and mood-congruent memory in individuals at risk for depressive relapse, Biol. Psychiatry, 61, 231, 10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.05.004

Rangel, 2008, A framework for studying the neurobiology of value-based decision making, Nat. Rev. Neurosci., 9, 545, 10.1038/nrn2357

Redgrave, 1999, The basal ganglia: a vertebrate solution to the selection problem?, Neuroscience, 89, 1009, 10.1016/S0306-4522(98)00319-4

Reid, 1997, Chronic mild stress and depressive disorder: a useful new model?, Psychopharmacology (Berl.), 134, 365, 10.1007/s002130050471

Reynolds, 2008, Emotional environments retune the valence of appetitive versus fearful functions in nucleus accumbens, Nat. Neurosci., 11, 423, 10.1038/nn2061

Rogers, 2004, Effects of beta-adrenoceptor blockade on components of human decision-making, Psychopharmacology (Berl.), 172, 157, 10.1007/s00213-003-1641-5

Rogers, 2003, Tryptophan depletion alters the decision-making of healthy volunteers through altered processing of reward cues, Neuropsychopharmacology, 28, 153, 10.1038/sj.npp.1300001

Rolls, 2005

Rolls, 2008, Top-down control of visual perception: attention in natural vision, Perception, 37, 333, 10.1068/p5877

Rolls, 2008, Expected value, reward outcome, and temporal difference error representations in a probabilistic decision task, Cereb. Cortex, 18, 652, 10.1093/cercor/bhm097

Rowe, 2005, Colour biases are a question of taste, Anim. Behav., 69, 587, 10.1016/j.anbehav.2004.06.010

Rushen, 1986, Some problems with the physiological concept of ‘stress’, Aust. Vet. J., 63, 359, 10.1111/j.1751-0813.1986.tb02896.x

Rushen, 1991, Problems associated with the interpretation of physiological data in the assessment of animal-welfare, Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 28, 381, 10.1016/0168-1591(91)90170-3

Russell, 2003, Core affect and the psychological construction of emotion, Psychol. Rev., 110, 145, 10.1037/0033-295X.110.1.145

Schachter, 1962, Cognitive, social, and physiological determinants of emotional state, Psychol. Rev., 69, 379, 10.1037/h0046234

Scherer, 1984, On the nature and function of emotion: a component process approach, 293

Scherer, 2001, Appraisal considered as a process of multi-level sequential checking, 92

Schultz, 1997, A neural substrate of prediction and reward, Science, 275, 1593, 10.1126/science.275.5306.1593

Seymour, 2007, The neurobiology of punishment, Nat. Rev. Neurosci., 8, 300, 10.1038/nrn2119

Shadlen, 2001, Neural basis of a perceptual decision in the parietal cortex (area lip) of the rhesus monkey, J. Neurophysiol., 86, 1916, 10.1152/jn.2001.86.4.1916

Shafir, 2008, Perceptual accuracy and conflicting effects of certainty on risk-taking behaviour, Nature, 453, 917, 10.1038/nature06841

Sharot, 2007, Neural mechanisms mediating optimism bias, Nature, 450, 102, 10.1038/nature06280

Shettleworth, 1998

Shiv, 2005, Investment behavior and the negative side of emotion, Psychol. Sci., 16, 435, 10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.01553.x

Smith, 1993, Appraisal components, core relational themes, and the emotions, Cogn. Emotion, 7, 233, 10.1080/02699939308409189

Smith, 2003, The comparative psychology of uncertainty monitoring and metacognition, Behav. Brain Sci., 26, 317, 10.1017/S0140525X03000086

Southwick, 2005, The psychobiology of depression and resilience to stress: implications for prevention and treatment, Ann. Rev. Clin. Psychol., 1, 255, 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.143948

Spruijt, 2001, A concept of welfare based on reward evaluating mechanisms in the brain: anticipatory behaviour as an indicator for the state of reward systems, Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 72, 145, 10.1016/S0168-1591(00)00204-5

Stober, 2000, Prospective cognitions in anxiety and depression: replication and methodological extension, Cogn. Emotion, 14, 725, 10.1080/02699930050117693

Stone, 2001, Intact physiological response to arousal with impaired recognition in alexithymia, Psychother. Psychosom., 70, 92, 10.1159/000056232

Syka, 1996, Auditory frequency and intensity discrimination in pigmented rats, Hear. Res., 100, 107, 10.1016/0378-5955(96)00101-3

Talwar, 1998, Auditory frequency discrimination in the white rat, Hear. Res., 126, 135, 10.1016/S0378-5955(98)00162-2

Tobler, 2007, Reward value coding distinct from risk attitude-related uncertainty coding in human reward systems, J. Neurophysiol., 97, 1621, 10.1152/jn.00745.2006

Tom, 2007, The neural basis of loss aversion in decision-making under risk, Science, 315, 515, 10.1126/science.1134239

Trepel, 2005, Prospect theory on the brain? Toward a cognitive neuroscience of decision under risk, Cogn. Brain Res., 23, 34, 10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2005.01.016

Trimmer, 2008, Mammalian choices: combining fast-but-inaccurate and slow-but-accurate decision-making systems, Proc. R. Soc. B (Lond.), 275, 2353, 10.1098/rspb.2008.0417

Tsetsenis, 2007, Suppression of conditioning to ambiguous cues by pharmacogenetic inhibition of the dentate gyrus, Nat. Neurosci., 10, 896, 10.1038/nn1919

Tucker, 2007, Neurophysiology of motivated learning: adaptive mechanisms underlying cognitive bias in depression, Cogn. Ther. Res., 31, 189, 10.1007/s10608-006-9115-9

van der Harst, 2008, Tools to measure and improve animal welfare: reward-related behaviour, Anim. Welf., 16, 67

van Praag, 2000, Neural consequences of environmental enrichment, Nat. Rev. Neurosci., 1, 191, 10.1038/35044558

Volz, 2003, Predicting events of varying probability: uncertainty investigated by fMRI, Neuroimage, 19, 271, 10.1016/S1053-8119(03)00122-8

Voss, 2008, Interpreting ambiguous stimuli: separating perceptual and judgmental biases, J. Exp. Soc. Psychol., 44, 1048, 10.1016/j.jesp.2007.10.009

Warda, 1998, Cognitive bias in acute stress disorder, Behav. Res. Ther., 36, 1177, 10.1016/S0005-7967(98)00071-0

Watson, 1988, Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: the PANAS scales, J. Pers. Soc. Psychol., 54, 1063, 10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063

Wemelsfelder, 1997, The scientific validity of subjective concepts in models of animal welfare, Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 53, 75, 10.1016/S0168-1591(96)01152-5

Wenzlaff, 1988, Depression and the magnification of failure, J. Abnorm. Psychol., 97, 90, 10.1037/0021-843X.97.1.90

Whishaw, 1992, Rats (rattus-norvegicus) modulate eating speed and vigilance to optimize food-consumption—effects of cover, circadian-rhythm, food-deprivation, and individual-differences, J. Comp. Psychol., 106, 411, 10.1037/0735-7036.106.4.411

Willner, 1997, Validity, reliability and utility of the chronic mild stress model of depression: a 10-year review and evaluation, Psychopharmacology (Berl.), 134, 319, 10.1007/s002130050456

Wohr, 2008, Effects of experience and context on 50-kHz vocalizations in rats, Physiol. Behav., 93, 766, 10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.11.031

Wright, 1992, Mood effects on subjective probability assessment, Org. Behav. Hum. Decis. Proc., 52, 276, 10.1016/0749-5978(92)90039-A

Würbel, 2000, Behaviour and the standardization fallacy, Nat. Genet., 26, 263, 10.1038/81541

Yang, 2007, Probabilistic reasoning by neurons, Nature, 447, 10.1038/nature05852

Yeates, 2008, Assessment of positive welfare: a review, Vet. J., 175, 293, 10.1016/j.tvjl.2007.05.009

Young, 2003

Zurita, 2000, Early exposure to chronic variable stress facilitates the occurrence of anhedonia and enhanced emotional reactions to novel stressors: reversal by naltrexone pretreatment, Behav. Brain Res., 117, 163, 10.1016/S0166-4328(00)00302-8