Clinical practice guideline on pregnancy and renal disease

BMC Nephrology - Tập 20 Số 1 - 2019
Kate Wiles1, Lucy C Chappell2, Katherine Clark3, Louise Elman4, Matt Hall5, Liz Lightstone6, Germin Mohamed4, Durba Mukherjee4, Catherine Nelson‐Piercy7, Philip Webster8, Rebecca Whybrow9, Kate Bramham10
1NIHR Doctoral Research Fellow in Obstetric Nephrology, Guy’s and St. Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust and King’s College London, London, UK
2Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and King's College London, London, UK
3King’s College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
4Expert Patient, c/o The Renal Association, Bristol, UK
5Nottingham University Hospital, Nottingham, UK
6Imperial College London and Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, London, UK
7Guy’s and St. Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust and Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, London, UK
8Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, London, UK
9King's College London, London, UK
10King’s College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust and King’s College London, London, UK

Tóm tắt

Từ khóa


Tài liệu tham khảo

Regitz-Zagrosek V, Roos-Hesselink JW, Bauersachs J, et al. 2018 ESC Guidelines for the management of cardiovascular diseases during pregnancy. Eur Heart J. 2018;39:3165–241.

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes in pregnancy: management of diabetes and its complications from preconception to the postnatal period [NG3]. 2015. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng3 (Accessed 22 May 2019).

Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Epilepsy in Pregnancy (Green-top Guideline No. 68). 2016. Available at: https://www.rcog.org.uk/en/guidelines-research-services/guidelines/gtg68/ (Accessed 28 May 2019).

Morice P, Uzan C, Uzan S. Cancer in pregnancy: a challenging conflict of interest. Lancet. 2012;379:495–6.

Knight M, Tuffnell D. A View From the UK: The UK and Ireland Confidential Enquiry into Maternal Deaths and Morbidity. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2018;61:347–58.

Nair M, Nelson-Piercy C, Knight M. Indirect maternal deaths: UK and global perspectives. Obstet Med. 2017;10:10–5.

Götestam Skorpen C, Hoeltzenbein M, Tincani A, et al. The EULAR points to consider for use of antirheumatic drugs before pregnancy, and during pregnancy and lactation. Ann Rheum Dis. 2016;75:795–810.

Henderson JT, Whitlock EP, O’Conner E, et al. Low-dose aspirin for the prevention of morbidity and mortality from preeclampsia: a systematic evidence review for the U.S. preventive services task force. Rockville: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US); 2014.

Rolnik DL, Wright D, Poon LC, et al. Aspirin versus Placebo in Pregnancies at High Risk for Preterm Preeclampsia. N Engl J Med. 2017;377:613–22.

Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Reducing the risk of venous thromboembolism during pregnancy and the puerperium: Green-top guideline No. 37a. 2015. Available at: https://www.rcog.org.uk/globalassets/documents/guidelines/gtg-37a.pdf (Accessed 22 May 2019).

Magee LA, Duley L. Oral beta-blockers for mild to moderate hypertension during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003;3:CD002863.

Xie RH, Guo Y, Krewski D, et al. Beta-blockers increase the risk of being born small for gestational age or of being institutionalised during infancy. BJOG. 2014;121:1090–6.

Cauldwell M, Steer P, Sterrenburg M, et al. Birth weight in pregnancies complicated by maternal heart disease. Heart. 2018;105:391–398.

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Hypertension in pregnancy: the management of hypertensive disorders in pregnancy [CG107]. 2011. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg107 (Accessed 22 May 2019).

US National Library of Medicine and Toxnet Toxicology Data Network. LactMed: Drugs and Lactation Database. Available at: https://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/newtoxnet/lactmed.htm (Accessed 22 May 2019).

Bateman B, Patorno E, Desai RJ, et al. Late pregnancy beta blocker exposure and risks of neonatal hypoglycemia and bradycardia. Pediatrics. 2016;138:e20160731.

Vigil-De Gracia P, Dominguez L, Solis A. Management of chronic hypertension during pregnancy with furosemide, amlodipine or aspirin: a pilot clinical trial. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2014;27:1291–4.

Morgan JL, Kogutt BK, Meek C, et al. 903: Pharmacokinetics of amlodipine besylate during pregnancy—how much infant exposure occurs? American Journal of Obstetrics &amp. Gynecology. 2017;216:S515–6.

Bergman JEH, Lutke LR, Gans ROB, et al. Beta-blocker use in pregnancy and risk of specific congenital anomalies: a European case-malformed control study. Drug Saf. 2018;41:415–27.

Petersen KM, Jimenez-Solem E, Traerup J, et al. Beta-blocker treatment during pregnancy and adverse pregnancy outcomes: a nationwide population-based cohort study. BMJ Open. 2012;2:e001185.

Duan L, Ng A, Chen W, et al. Beta-blocker subtypes and risk of low-birthweight in newborns. J Clin Hypertens. 2018;20:1603–9.

Cauldwell M, Steer P, Sterrenburg M, et al. Birthweights in pregnancies complicated by maternal heart disease. Heart. 2019;105:391–8.

Li D-K, Yang C, Andrade S, et al. Maternal exposure to angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors in the first trimester and risk of malformations in offspring: a retrospective cohort study. BMJ. 2011;343:d5931.

Bateman BT, Patorno E, Desai RJ, et al. Angiotensin-converting Enzyme Inhibitors and the Risk of Congenital Malformations. Obstetrics &amp. Gynecology. 2017;129:174–84.

Nice FJ, DeEugenio D, DiMino TA, et al. Medications and Breast-Feeding: A Guide for Pharmacists, Pharmacy Technicians, and Other Healthcare Professionals Part II. J Pharm Technol. 2004;20:85–95.

Collins R, Yusuf S, Peto R. Overview of randomised trials of diuretics in pregnancy. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1985;290:17–23.

Sibai BM, Grossman RA, Grossman HG. Effects of diuretics on plasma volume in pregnancies with long-term hypertension. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1984;150:831–5.

Benediktsson R, Calder AA, Edwards CR, et al. Placental 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase: a key regulator of fetal glucocorticoid exposure. Clin Endocrinol. 1997;46:161–6.

van Runnard Heimel PJ, Schobben AFAM, Huisjes AJM, et al. The transplacental passage of prednisolone in pregnancies complicated by early-onset HELLP syndrome. Placenta. 2005;26:842–5.

Tata LJ, Lewis SA, McKeever TM, et al. Effect of maternal asthma, exacerbations and asthma medication use on congenital malformations in offspring: a UK population-based study. Thorax. 2008;63:981–7.

Hviid A, Mølgaard-Nielsen D. Corticosteroid use during pregnancy and risk of orofacial clefts. CMAJ. 2011;183:796–804.

Moroni G, Doria A, Giglio E, et al. Fetal outcome and recommendations of pregnancies in lupus nephritis in the 21st century. A prospective multicenter study. J Autoimmun. 2016;74:6–12.

Izmirly PM, Costedoat-Chalumeau N, Pisoni CN, et al. Maternal use of hydroxychloroquine is associated with a reduced risk of recurrent anti-SSA/Ro-antibody-associated cardiac manifestations of neonatal lupus. Circulation. 2012;126:76–82.

Wallace DJ, Gudsoorkar VS, Weisman MH, et al. New insights into mechanisms of therapeutic effects of antimalarial agents in SLE. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2012;8:522–33.

Kaplan YC, Ozsarfati J, Nickel C, et al. Reproductive outcomes following hydroxychloroquine use for autoimmune diseases: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2016;81:835–48.

Clowse MEB, Magder L, Witter F, et al. Hydroxychloroquine in lupus pregnancy. Arthritis Rheum. 2006;54:3640–7.

Marmor MF, Kellner U, Lai TYY, et al. Recommendations on Screening for Chloroquine and Hydroxychloroquine Retinopathy (2016 Revision). Ophthalmology. 2016;123:1386–94.

Francella A, Dyan A, Bodian C, et al. The safety of 6-mercaptopurine for childbearing patients with inflammatory bowel disease: a retrospective cohort study. Gastroenterology. 2003;124:9–17.

Flint J, Panchal S, Hurrell A, et al. BSR and BHPR guideline on prescribing drugs in pregnancy and breastfeeding part I: standard and biologic disease modifying anti-rheumatic drugs and corticosteroids. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2016;55:1693–7.

Sau A, Clarke S, Bass J, et al. Azathioprine and breastfeeding: is it safe? BJOG. 2007;114:498–501.

Bar Oz B, Hackman R, Einarson T, et al. Pregnancy outcome after cyclosporine therapy during pregnancy: a meta-analysis. Transplantation. 2001;71:1051–5.

Chakkera HA, Kudva Y, Kaplan B. Calcineurin Inhibitors: pharmacologic mechanisms impacting both insulin resistance and insulin secretion leading to glucose dysregulation and diabetes mellitus. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2017;101:114–20.

Kim H, Jeong JC, Yang J, et al. The optimal therapy of calcineurin inhibitors for pregnancy in kidney transplantation. Clin Transpl. 2015;29:142–8.

Aktürk S, Çelebi ZK, Erdoğmuş Ş, et al. Pregnancy After Kidney Transplantation: Outcomes, Tacrolimus Doses, and Trough Levels. Transplant Proc. 2015;47:1442–4.

Kainz A, Harabacz I, Cowlrick IS, et al. Review of the course and outcome of 100 pregnancies in 84 women treated with tacrolimus. Transplantation. 2000;70:1718–21.

Sifontis NM, Coscia LA, Constantinescu S, et al. Pregnancy outcomes in solid organ transplant recipients with exposure to mycophenolate mofetil or sirolimus. Transplantation. 2006;82:1698–702.

Ioannidis JPA, Katsifis GE, Tzioufas AG, et al. Predictors of sustained amenorrhea from pulsed intravenous cyclophosphamide in premenopausal women with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol. 2002;29:2129–35.

Zemlickis D, Lishner M, Degendorfer P, et al. Fetal outcome after in utero exposure to cancer chemotherapy. Arch Intern Med. 1992;152:573–6.

Federal Drug Administration. Rituxan Final Labeling Text. 2010. Available at: https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2010/103705s5311lbl.pdf (Accessed 22 May 2019).

Chakravarty EF, Murray ER, Kelman A, et al. Pregnancy outcomes after maternal exposure to rituximab. Blood. 2011;117:1499–506.

Federal Drug Administration. Rapamune (sirolimus) drug information sheet. 2019. Available at: https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2003/021083s006lbl.pdf (Accessed 22 May 2019).

Federal Drug Administration. Afinitor (everolimus) drug information sheet. 2019. Available at: https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2010/022334s004lbl.pdf (Accessed 22 May 2019).

Bruel A, Kavanagh D, Noris M, et al. Hemolytic uremic syndrome in pregnancy and postpartum. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2017;12 (8) 1237–1247.

Kelly RJ, Höchsmann B, Szer J, et al. Eculizumab in pregnant patients with paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:1032–9.

Albaramki J, Hodson EM, Craig JC, et al. Parenteral versus oral iron therapy for adults and children with chronic kidney disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;1:CD007857.

Tariq N, Ayub R, Khan WU, et al. Parenteral iron therapy in the treatment of iron deficiency anemia during pregnancy: a randomized controlled trial. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak. 2015;25:193–7.

Kriplani A, Mahey R, Dash BB, et al. Intravenous iron sucrose therapy for moderate to severe anaemia in pregnancy. Indian J Med Res. 2013;138:78–82.

Al RA, Unlubilgin E, Kandemir O, et al. Intravenous versus oral iron for treatment of anemia in pregnancy: a randomized trial. Obstet Gynecol. 2005;106:1335–40.

al-Momen AK, al-Meshari A, al-Nuaim L, et al. Intravenous iron sucrose complex in the treatment of iron deficiency anemia during pregnancy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 1996;69:121–4.

McMullin MF, White R, Lappin T, et al. Haemoglobin during pregnancy: relationship to erythropoietin and haematinic status. Eur J Haematol. 2003;71:44–50.

Sienas L, Wong T, Collins R, et al. Contemporary uses of erythropoietin in pregnancy: a literature review. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2013;68:594–602.

Sanchez-Gonzalez LR, Castro-Melendez SE, Angeles-Torres AC, et al. Efficacy and safety of adjuvant recombinant human erythropoietin and ferrous sulfate as treatment for iron deficiency anemia during the third trimester of pregnancy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2016;205:32–6.

Holley JL, Schmidt RJ, Bender FH, et al. Gynecologic and reproductive issues in women on dialysis. Am J Kidney Dis. 1997;29:685–90.

Schwarz EB, Manzi S. Risk of unintended pregnancy among women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 2008;59:863–6.

Bramham K, Nelson-Piercy C, Gao H, et al. Pregnancy in renal transplant recipients: a UK national cohort study. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2013;8:290–8.

Hladunewich MA, Hou S, Odutayo A, et al. Intensive hemodialysis associates with improved pregnancy outcomes: a Canadian and United States cohort comparison. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2014;25:1103–9.

Shah PS, Balkhair T, Ohlsson A, et al. Intention to Become Pregnant and Low Birth Weight and Preterm Birth: A Systematic Review. Matern Child Health J. 2011;15:205–16.

Smyth A, Oliveira GHM, Lahr BD, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of pregnancy outcomes in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus and lupus nephritis. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2010;5:2060–8.

Bundhun PK, Soogund MZS, Huang F. Impact of systemic lupus erythematosus on maternal and fetal outcomes following pregnancy: A meta-analysis of studies published between years 2001-2016. J Autoimmun. 2017;79:17–27.

Armenti VT, Radomski JS, Moritz MJ, et al. Report from the National Transplantation Pregnancy Registry (NTPR): outcomes of pregnancy after transplantation. Clin Transpl. 2004:103–14.

Stratta P, Canavese C, Giacchino F, et al. Pregnancy in kidney transplantation: satisfactory outcomes and harsh realities. J Nephrol. 2003;16:792–806.

Deshpande NA, James NT, Kucirka LM, et al. Pregnancy outcomes in kidney transplant recipients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Transplant. 2011;11:2388–404.

Brynhildsen J. Combined hormonal contraceptives: prescribing patterns, compliance, and benefits versus risks. Ther Adv Drug Saf. 2014;5:201–13.

Healthcare TFOSAR. UK medical eligibility criteria for contraceptive use; 2016.

Korver T, Klipping C, Heger-Mahn D, et al. Maintenance of ovulation inhibition with the 75-microgram desogestrel-only contraceptive pill (Cerazette) after scheduled 12-h delays in tablet intake. Contraception. 2005;71:8–13.

Estes CM, Westhoff C. Contraception for the transplant patient. Semin Perinatol. 2007;31:372–7.

Krajewski CM, Geetha D, Gomez-Lobo V. Contraceptive Options for Women With a History of Solid-Organ Transplantation. Transplantation. 2013;95:1183–6.

Morrison CS, Sekadde-Kigondu C, Sinei SK, et al. Is the intrauterine device appropriate contraception for HIV-1-infected women? BJOG. 2001;108:784–90.

Ramhendar T, Byrne P. Use of the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system in renal transplant recipients: a retrospective case review. Contraception. 2012;86:288–9.

Mørch LS, Skovlund CW, Hannaford PC, et al. Contemporary Hormonal Contraception and the Risk of Breast Cancer. N Engl J Med. 2017;377:2228–39.

Marchbanks PA, McDonald JA, Wilson HG, et al. Oral contraceptives and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:2025–32.

Hunter DJ. Oral Contraceptives and the Small Increased Risk of Breast Cancer. N Engl J Med. 2017;377:2276–7.

Trussell J. Contraceptive failure in the United States. Contraception. 2011;83:397–404.

Boumpas DT, Austin HA, Vaughan EM, et al. Risk for sustained amenorrhea in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus receiving intermittent pulse cyclophosphamide therapy. Ann Intern Med. 1993;119:366–9.

Clowse MEB, Copland SC, Hsieh T-C, et al. Oral cyclophosphamide therapy diminishes ovarian reserve in women with granulomatosis with polyangiitis. Arthritis Care Res. 2011;63:1777.

Howard-Anderson J, Ganz PA, Bower JE, et al. Quality of life, fertility concerns, and behavioral health outcomes in younger breast cancer survivors: a systematic review. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2012;104:386–405.

Genest G, Laskin CA. Safety and Efficacy of in Vitro Fertilization in Women with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus and Antiphospholipid Syndrome. J Rheumatol. 2017;44:547–9.

Costa M, Colia D. Treating infertility in autoimmune patients. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2008;47(Suppl 3):iii38–41.

Elizur SE, Chian RC, Pineau CA, et al. Fertility preservation treatment for young women with autoimmune diseases facing treatment with gonadotoxic agents. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2008;47:1506–9.

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Fertility problems: assessment and treatment [CG156]. 2013. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg156 (Accessed 22 May 2019).

Somers EC, Marder W, Christman GM, et al. Use of a gonadotropin-releasing hormone analog for protection against premature ovarian failure during cyclophosphamide therapy in women with severe lupus. Arthritis Rheum. 2005;52:2761–7.

Moore HCF, Unger JM, Phillips K-A, et al. Goserelin for ovarian protection during breast-cancer adjuvant chemotherapy. N Engl J Med. 2015;372:923–32.

Lambertini M, Boni L, Michelotti A, et al. Ovarian suppression with triptorelin during adjuvant breast cancer chemotherapy and long-term ovarian function, pregnancies, and disease-free survival: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2015;314:2632–40.

Lambertini M, Ceppi M, Poggio F, et al. Ovarian suppression using luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone agonists during chemotherapy to preserve ovarian function and fertility of breast cancer patients: a meta-analysis of randomized studies. Ann Oncol. 2015;26:2408–19.

Demeestere I, Brice P, Peccatori FA, et al. No evidence for the benefit of gonadotrophin-releasing hormone agonist in preserving ovarian function and fertility in lymphoma survivors treated with chemotherapy: final long-term report of a prospective randomized trial. J Clin Oncol. 2016;34:2568–74.

Oktay K, Harvey BE, Partridge AH, et al. Fertility preservation in patients with cancer: ASCO clinical practice guideline update. J Clin Oncol. 2018;36:1994–2001.

Piccoli GB, Arduino S, Attini R, et al. Multiple pregnancies in CKD patients: an explosive mix. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2013;8:41–50.

Piccoli GB, Cabiddu G, Attini R, et al. Risk of Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes in Women with CKD. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2015;26:2011–22.

Bramham K, Briley AL, Seed PT, et al. Pregnancy outcome in women with chronic kidney disease: a prospective cohort study. Reprod Sci. 2011;18:623–30.

Bramham K, Seed PT, Lightstone L, et al. Diagnostic and predictive biomarkers for pre-eclampsia in patients with established hypertension and chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int. 2016;89:874–85.

Nevis IF, Reitsma A, Dominic A, et al. Pregnancy outcomes in women with chronic kidney disease: a systematic review. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2011;6:2587–98.

Zhang J-J, Ma X-X, Hao L, et al. A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Outcomes of Pregnancy in CKD and CKD Outcomes in Pregnancy. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2015;10:1964–78.

Imbasciati E, Gregorini G, Cabiddu G, et al. Pregnancy in CKD Stages 3 to 5: Fetal and Maternal Outcomes. Am J Kidney Dis. 2007;49:753–62.

Williams D, Davison J. Chronic kidney disease in pregnancy. BMJ. 2008;336:211–5.

Wiles KS, Bramham K, Vais A, et al. Pre-pregnancy counselling in chronic kidney disease: a retrospective analysis of nine years’ experience. BMC Nephrol. 2015;16:28.

Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority. Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis. 2019. Available at: https://www.hfea.gov.uk/pgd-conditions/ (Accessed 22 May 2019).

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Preconception advice and management: clinical knowledge summaries. 2017. Available at: https://cks.nice.org.uk/pre-conception-advice-and-management#!topicSummary (Accessed 22 May 2019).

De Castro I, Easterling TR, Bansal N, et al. Nephrotic syndrome in pregnancy poses risks with both maternal and fetal complications. Kidney Int. 2017;91:1464–72.

Moroni G, Doria A, Giglio E, et al. Maternal outcome in pregnant women with lupus nephritis. A prospective multicenter study. J Autoimmun. 2016;74:194–200.

Fredi M, Lazzaroni MG, Tani C, et al. Systemic vasculitis and pregnancy: a multicenter study on maternal and neonatal outcome of 65 prospectively followed pregnancies. Autoimmun Rev. 2015;14:686–91.

Buyon JP, Kim MY, Guerra MM, et al. Predictors of Pregnancy Outcomes in Patients With Lupus: A Cohort Study. Ann Intern Med. 2015;163:153–63.

Zhou H, Liu Y, Liu L, et al. Maternal pre-pregnancy risk factors for miscarriage from a prevention perspective: a cohort study in China. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2016;206:57–63.

Nobles CJ, Mendola P, Mumford SL, et al. Preconception Blood Pressure Levels and Reproductive Outcomes in a Prospective Cohort of Women Attempting Pregnancy. Hypertension. 2018;71:904–10.

Cooper WO, Hernandez-Diaz S, Arbogast PG, et al. Major congenital malformations after first-trimester exposure to ACE inhibitors. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:2443–51.

Bateman BT, Patorno E, Desai RJ, et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and the risk of congenital malformations. Obstet Gynecol. 2017;129:174–84.

Hünseler C, Paneitz A, Friedrich D, et al. Angiotensin II receptor blocker induced fetopathy: 7 cases. Klin Padiatr. 2011;223:10–4.

Jones DC, Hayslett JP. Outcome of pregnancy in women with moderate or severe renal insufficiency. N Engl J Med. 1996;335:226–32.

National Kidney Foundation. KDOQI Clinical Practice Guideline for Hemodialysis Adequacy: 2015 update. Am J Kidney Dis. 2015;66:884–930.

Odutayo A, Hladunewich M. Obstetric nephrology: renal hemodynamic and metabolic physiology in normal pregnancy. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2012;7:2073–80.

Davison JM, Dunlop W. Renal hemodynamics and tubular function normal human pregnancy. Kidney Int. 1980;18:152–61.

Harel Z, McArthur E, Hladunewich M, et al. Serum Creatinine Levels Before, During, and After Pregnancy. JAMA. 2019;321:205–7.

Wiles K, Bramham K, Seed PT, et al. Serum creatinine in pregnancy: a systematic review. Kidney Int Rep. 2018;4(3):408–419.

Smith MC, Moran P, Ward MK, et al. Assessment of glomerular filtration rate during pregnancy using the MDRD formula. BJOG. 2008;115:109–12.

Ahmed SB, Bentley-Lewis R, Hollenberg NK, et al. A comparison of prediction equations for estimating glomerular filtration rate in pregnancy. Hypertens Pregnancy. 2009;28:243–55.

Alper AB, Yi Y, Rahman M, et al. Performance of Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate Prediction Equations in Preeclamptic Patients. Am J Perinatol. 2010;28:425–30.

Strevens H, Wide-Swensson D, Torffvit O, et al. Serum cystatin C for assessment of glomerular filtration rate in pregnant and non-pregnant women. Indications of altered filtration process in pregnancy. Scand J Clin Lab Invest. 2002;62:141–7.

Bramham K, Makanjuola D, Hussein W, et al. Serum cystatin is not a marker of glomerular filtration rate in pregnancy. Obstet Med. 2009;2:121–2.

Higby K, Suiter CR, Phelps JY, et al. Normal values of urinary albumin and total protein excretion during pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1994;171:984–9.

Waugh JJ, Clark TJ, Divakaran TG, et al. Accuracy of urinalysis dipstick techniques in predicting significant proteinuria in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2004;103:769–77.

Waugh JJ, Bell SC, Kilby MD, et al. Optimal bedside urinalysis for the detection of proteinuria in hypertensive pregnancy: a study of diagnostic accuracy. BJOG. 2005;112:412–7.

Côté A-M, Firoz T, Mattman A, et al. The 24-hour urine collection: gold standard or historical practice? Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2008;199:625.e1–6.

Methven S, MacGregor MS, Traynor JP, et al. Assessing proteinuria in chronic kidney disease: protein-creatinine ratio versus albumin-creatinine ratio. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2010;25:2991–6.

Côté A-M, Brown MA, Lam E, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of urinary spot protein:creatinine ratio for proteinuria in hypertensive pregnant women: systematic review. BMJ. 2008;336:1003–6.

Huang Q, Gao Y, Yu Y, et al. Urinary spot albumin:creatinine ratio for documenting proteinuria in women with preeclampsia. Rev Obstet Gynecol. 2012;5:9–15.

Waugh J, Hooper R, Lamb E, et al. Spot protein-creatinine ratio and spot albumin-creatinine ratio in the assessment of pre-eclampsia: a diagnostic accuracy study with decision-analytic model-based economic evaluation and acceptability analysis. Health Technol Assess. 2017;21:1–90.

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Chronic kidney disease in adults: assessment and management [CG182]. 2015. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg182 (Accessed 22 May 2019).

Brown MA, Magee LA, Kenny LC, et al. Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy: ISSHP classification, diagnosis, and management recommendations for international practice. Hypertension. 2018;72:24–43.

Cade TJ, de Crespigny PC, Nguyen T, et al. Should the spot albumin-to-creatinine ratio replace the spot protein-to-creatinine ratio as the primary screening tool for proteinuria in pregnancy. Pregnancy Hypertens. 2015;5:298–302.

Nair M, Kurinczuk JJ, Brocklehurst P, et al. Factors associated with maternal death from direct pregnancy complications: a UK national case-control study. BJOG. 2015;122:653–62.

Nair M, Knight M, Kurinczuk JJ. Risk factors and newborn outcomes associated with maternal deaths in the UK from 2009 to 2013: a national case-control study. BJOG. 2016;123:1654–62.

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence Antenatal care for uncomplicated pregnancies [CG62]. 2019. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg62 (Accessed 22 May 2019).

Healthcare Commission. Towards better births: a review of maternity services in England. Commission for Healthcare Audit and Inspection; London. 2008.

Valentin M, Muller F, Beaujard MP, et al. First-trimester combined screening for trisomy 21 in women with renal disease. Prenat Diagn. 2015;35:244–8.

Hwang JL, Weiss RE. Steroid-induced diabetes: a clinical and molecular approach to understanding and treatment. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2014;30:96–102.

Garg AX, Nevis IF, McArthur E, et al. Gestational hypertension and preeclampsia in living kidney donors. N Engl J Med. 2015;372:124–33.

Hofmeyr GJ, Lawrie TA, Atallah AN, et al. Calcium supplementation during pregnancy for preventing hypertensive disorders and related problems. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;6:CD001059.

Hofmeyr GJ, Betrán AP, Singata-Madliki M, et al. Prepregnancy and early pregnancy calcium supplementation among women at high risk of pre-eclampsia: a multicentre, double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2019;393:330–9.

Villar J, Abdel-Aleem H, Merialdi M, et al. World Health Organization randomized trial of calcium supplementation among low calcium intake pregnant women. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2006;194:639–49.

Spiegel DM, Brady K. Calcium balance in normal individuals and in patients with chronic kidney disease on low- and high-calcium diets. Kidney Int. 2012;81:1116–22.

Isakova T, Nickolas TL, Denburg M, et al. KDOQI US Commentary on the 2017 KDIGO Clinical Practice Guideline Update for the Diagnosis, Evaluation, Prevention, and Treatment of Chronic Kidney Disease-Mineral and Bone Disorder (CKD-MBD). Am J Kidney Dis. 2017;70:737–51.

Magee LA, von Dadelszen P, Rey E, et al. Less-tight versus tight control of hypertension in pregnancy. N Engl J Med. 2015;372:407–17.

Abalos E, Duley L, Steyn DW, et al. Antihypertensive drug therapy for mild to moderate hypertension during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018;10:CD002252.

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. PlGF-based testing to help diagnose suspected pre-eclampsia (Triage PlGF test, Elecsys immunoassay sFlt-1/PlGF ratio, DELFIA Xpress PlGF 1–2-3 test, and BRAHMS sFlt-1 Kryptor/BRAHMS PlGF plus Kryptor PE ratio) [DG23]. 2016. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/dg23 (Accessed 22 May 2019).

Chappell LC, Duckworth S, Seed PT, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of placental growth factor in women with suspected preeclampsia: a prospective multicenter study. Circulation. 2013;128:2121–31.

Agrawal S, Cerdeira AS, Redman C, et al. Meta-analysis and systematic review to assess the role of soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 and placenta growth factor ratio in prediction of preeclampsia. Hypertension. 2018;71:306–16.

Duhig KE, Myers J, Seed PT, et al. Placental growth factor testing to assess women with suspected pre-eclampsia: a multicentre, pragmatic, stepped-wedge cluster-randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2019;393:1807–18.

Rolfo A, Attini R, Tavassoli E, et al. Is it possible to differentiate chronic kidney disease and preeclampsia by means of new and old biomarkers? A prospeective study. Dis Markers. 2015;2015:127083.

World Health Organisation. WHO recommendations on antenatal care for a positive pregnancy experience. 2016. Available at: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/250796/9789241549912-eng.pdf;jsessionid=F51CF06F12EAF86C6AC57079A965078A?sequence=1 (Accessed 22 May 2019).

Pavord S, Myers B, Robinson S, et al. UK guidelines on the management of iron deficiency in pregnancy. Br J Haematol. 2012;156:588–600.

Steer P, Alam MA, Wadsworth J, et al. Relation between maternal haemoglobin concentration and birth weight in different ethnic groups. BMJ. 1995;310:489–91.

de Benoist B, McLean E, Egll I, et al. Worldwide prevalence of anaemia 1993-2005: WHO global database on anaemia. Geneva; 2008.

Gaweda AE. Markers of iron status in chronic kidney disease. Hemodial Int. 2017;21(Suppl 1):S21–7.

Maxwell PH, Eckardt K-U. HIF prolyl hydroxylase inhibitors for the treatment of renal anaemia and beyond. Nat Rev Nephrol. 2016;12:157–68.

Royal College of Obsetricians and Gynaecologists. Vitamin D in Pregnancy. 2014; Scientific Impact Paper 43. Available at: https://www.rcog.org.uk/globalassets/documents/guidelines/scientific-impact-papers/vitamin_d_sip43_june14.pdf (accessed 22 May 2019).

De-Regil LM, Palacios C, Lombardo LK, et al. Vitamin D supplementation for women during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016:CD008873.

Palacios C, De-Regil LM, Lombardo LK, et al. Vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy: updated meta-analysis on maternal outcomes. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2016;164:148–55.

Tamblyn JA, Susarla R, Jenkinson C, et al. Dysregulation of maternal and placental vitamin D metabolism in preeclampsia. Placenta. 2017;50:70–7.

Piccoli GB, Daidola G, Attini R, et al. Kidney biopsy in pregnancy: evidence for counselling? A systematic narrative review. BJOG. 2013;120:412–27.

Webster P, Webster LM, Cook HT, et al. A multicenter cohort study of histologic findings and long-term outcomes of kidney disease in women who have been pregnant. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2017;12:408–16.

Hogan JJ, Mocanu M, Berns JS. The native kidney biopsy: update and evidence for best practice. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2016;11:354–62.

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Intrapartum care for healthy women and babies [CG190]. 2014. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg190 (Accessed 22 May 2019).

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Intrapartum care for women with existing medical conditions or obstetric complications and their babies [NG121]. 2019. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng121 (Accessed 22 May 2019).

Royal College of Anaesthetists. Care of the critically ill woman in childbirth; enhanced maternal care. 2018. Available at: https://www.rcoa.ac.uk/system/files/EMC-Guidelines2018.pdf (Accessed 22 May 2019).

Knight M, Tuffnell D, Kenyon S et al. Saving lives, improving mothers’ care: Surveillance of maternal deaths in the UK 2011–13 and lessons learned to inform maternity care from the UK and Ireland. Confidential enquiries into maternal deaths and morbidity 2009–13. 2015;

Knight M, Kenyon S, Brocklehurst P et al. Saving Lives, Improving Mothers Care Lessons learned to inform future maternity care from the UK and Ireland Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths and Morbidity 2009–2012. 2014;

Mackintosh N, Watson K, Rance S, et al. Value of a modified early obstetric warning system (MEOWS) in managing maternal complications in the peripartum period: an ethnographic study. BMJ Qual Saf. 2014;23:26–34.

Kumar F, Kemp J, Edwards C, et al. Pregnancy physiology pattern prediction study (4P study): protocol of an observational cohort study collecting vital sign information to inform the development of an accurate centile-based obstetric early warning score. BMJ Open. 2017;7:e016034.

Melchiorre K, Sutherland G, Sharma R, et al. Mid-gestational maternal cardiovascular profile in preterm and term pre-eclampsia: a prospective study. BJOG. 2013;120:496–504.

Dennis AT, Castro JM. Hypertension and haemodynamics in pregnant women- is a unified theory for pre-eclampsia possible? Anaesthesia. 2014;69:1183–9.

Brown MA, Gallery ED. Volume homeostasis in normal pregnancy and pre-eclampsia: physiology and clinical implications. Baillieres Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 1994;8:287–310.

Marret S, Ancel PY, Marpeau L, et al. Neonatal and 5-year outcomes after birth at 30-34 weeks of gestation. Obstet Gynecol. 2007;110:72–80.

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Postnatal care up to 8 weeks after birth. [CG37]. 2015. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg37 (Accessed 22 May 2019).

Perneger TV, Whelton PK, Klag MJ. Risk of kidney failure associated with the use of acetaminophen, aspirin, and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs. N Engl J Med. 1994;331:1675–9.

Sandler DP, Burr FR, Weinberg CR. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and the risk for chronic renal disease. Ann Intern Med. 1991;115:165–72.

Gooch K, Culleton BF, Manns BJ, et al. NSAID use and progression of chronic kidney disease. Am J Med. 2007;120:280.e1–7.

Evans M, Fored CM, Bellocco R, et al. Acetaminophen, aspirin and progression of advanced chronic kidney disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2009;24:1908–18.

Nderitu P, Doos L, Jones PW, et al. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and chronic kidney disease progression: a systematic review. Fam Pract. 2013;30:247–55.

Curhan GC, Knight EL, Rosner B, et al. Lifetime nonnarcotic analgesic use and decline in renal function in women. Arch Intern Med. 2004;164:1519–24.

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs [KTT13]. 2018. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/advice/ktt13 (Accessed 22 May 2019).

Levin A, Stevens PE. Summary of KDIGO 2012 CKD guideline: behind the scenes, need for guidance, and a framework for moving forward. Kidney Int. 2014;85:49–61.

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Acute kidney injury: prevention, detection and management [CG169]. 2013. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg169 (Accessed 22 May 2019).

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Contraception [QS129]. 2016. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/qs129 (Accessed 22 May 2019).

Gill JS, Zalunardo N, Rose C, et al. The pregnancy rate and live birth rate in kidney transplant recipients. Am J Transplant. 2009;9:1541–9.

Levidiotis V, Chang S, McDonald S. Pregnancy and maternal outcomes among kidney transplant recipients. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2009;20:2433–40.

Armenti VT, Radomski JS, Moritz MJ, et al. Report from the National Transplantation Pregnancy Registry (NTPR): outcomes of pregnancy after transplantation. Clin Transpl. 2000:123–34.

Rose C, Gill J, Zalunardo N, et al. Timing of pregnancy after kidney transplantation and risk of allograft failure. Am J Transplant. 2016;16:2360–7.

European Best Practice Guidelines Expert Group on Renal Transplantation. European best practice guidelines for renal transplantation. Section IV: Long-term management of the transplant recipient. IV.10. Pregnancy in renal transplant recipients. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2002;17(Suppl 4):50–5.

McKay DB, Josephson MA, Armenti VT, et al. Reproduction and transplantation: report on the AST Consensus Conference on Reproductive Issues and Transplantation. Am J Transplant. 2005;5:1592–9.

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Immunosuppressive therapy for kidney transplant in adults [TA481] 2017. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ta481 (Accessed 22 May 2019).

Shrestha BM, Throssell D, McKane W, et al. Injury to a transplanted kidney during caesarean section: a case report. Exp Clin Transplant. 2007;5:618–20.

Transplant Pregnancy Registry International. Annual transplant pregnancy registry international report 2017. Available from: https://www.transplantpregnancyregistry.org/publications-collaborations/ (Accessed 22 May 2019).

Bramham K, Lightstone L, Taylor J, et al. Pregnancy in pancreas-kidney transplant recipients: report of three cases and review of the literature. Obstet Med. 2010;3:73–7.

Mohammadi FA, Borg M, Gulyani A, et al. Pregnancy outcomes and impact of pregnancy on graft function in women after kidney transplantation. Clin Transpl. 2017;31:e13089.

Okundaye I, Abrinko P, Hou S. Registry of pregnancy in dialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis. 1998;31:766–73.

Hou S. Daily dialysis in pregnancy. Hemodial Int. 2004;8:167–71.

Piccoli GB, Minelli F, Versino E, et al. Pregnancy in dialysis patients in the new millennium: a systematic review and meta-regression analysis correlating dialysis schedules and pregnancy outcomes. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2016;31:1915–34.

Sachdeva M, Barta V, Thakkar J, et al. Pregnancy outcomes in women on hemodialysis: a national survey. Clin Kidney J. 2017;10:276–81.

Barua M, Hladunewich M, Keunen J, et al. Successful pregnancies on nocturnal home hemodialysis. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2008;3:392–6.

Asamiya Y, Otsubo S, Matsuda Y, et al. The importance of low blood urea nitrogen levels in pregnant patients undergoing hemodialysis to optimize birth weight and gestational age. Kidney Int. 2009;75:1217–22.

Cabiddu G, Castellino S, Gernone G, et al. Best practices on pregnancy on dialysis: the Italian Study Group on Kidney and Pregnancy. J Nephrology. 2015;28:279–88.

Hladunewich M, Schatell D. Intensive dialysis and pregnancy. Haemodial Int. 2016;20:339–48.

Ross LE, Swift PA, Newbold SM, et al. An Alternative Approach to Delivering Intensive Dialysis in Pregnancy. Perit Dial Int. 2016;36:575–7.

Malin GL, Wallace S, Hall M, et al. Peritoneal dialysis throughout pregnancy with successful outcome: A case report. Obstet Med. 2018;11:98–100.

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Renal replacement therapy and conservative management [NG107]. 2018. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng107 (Accessed 22 May 2019).

Mackay EV. Pregnancy and Renal Disease A Ten-Year Survey. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 1963;3:21–34.

Fairley KF, Kincaid-Smith P. Renal disease in pregnancy. Postgrad Med J. 1968;44:45.

Sato JL, De Oliveira L, Kirsztajn GM, et al. Chronic kidney disease in pregnancy requiring first-time dialysis. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2010;111:45–8.

Jesudason S, Grace BS, McDonald SP. Pregnancy outcomes according to dialysis commencing before or after conception in women with ESRD. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2014;9:143–9.

Wei S, Lai K, Yang Z, et al. Systemic lupus erythematosus and risk of preterm birth: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Lupus. 2017;26:563–71.

Andreoli L, Bertsias GK, Agmon-Levin N, et al. EULAR recommendations for women’s health and the management of family planning, assisted reproduction, pregnancy and menopause in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus and/or antiphospholipid syndrome. Ann Rheum Dis. 2017;76:476–85.

Gordon C, Amissah-Arthur MB, Gayed M, et al. The British Society for Rheumatology guideline for the management of systemic lupus erythematosus in adults. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2018;57:e1–e45.

Fischer-Betz R, Specker C, Brinks R, et al. Low risk of renal flares and negative outcomes in women with lupus nephritis conceiving after switching from mycophenolate mofetil to azathioprine. Rheumatology. 2013;52:1070–6.

Fanouriakis A, Kostopoulou M, Alunno A, et al. 2019 update of the EULAR recommendations for the management of systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann Rheum Dis. 2019;78:736–45.

Izmirly PM, Kim MY, Llanos C, et al. Evaluation of the risk of anti-SSA/Ro-SSB/La antibody-associated cardiac manifestations of neonatal lupus in fetuses of mothers with systemic lupus erythematosus exposed to hydroxychloroquine. Ann Rheum Dis. 2010;69:1827–30.

McDonald EG, Bissonette L, Emsworth S, et al. Monitoring of systematic erythematosus pregnancies: a systematic literature review. J Rheumatol. 2018;45:1477–90.

Clowse MEB, Eudy AM, Kiernan E, et al. The prevention, screening and treatment of congenital heart block from neonatal lupus: a survey of provider practices. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2018;57:v9–v17.

Saxena A, Izmirly PM, Mendez B, et al. Prevention and treatment in utero of autoimmune-associated congenital heart block. Cardiol Rev. 2014;22:263–7.

Friedman DM, Llanos C, Izmirly PM, et al. Evaluation of fetuses in a study of intravenous immunoglobulin as preventive therapy for congenital heart block: Results of a multicenter, prospective, open-label clinical trial. Arthritis Rheum. 2010;62:1138–46.

Pisoni CN, Brucato A, Ruffatti A, et al. Failure of intravenous immunoglobulin to prevent congenital heart block: Findings of a multicenter, prospective, observational study. Arthritis Rheum. 2010;62:1147–52.

Uthman I, Noureldine MHA, Ruiz-Irastorza G, et al. Management of antiphospholipid syndrome. Ann Rheum Dis. 2019;78:155–61.

Espinosa G, Cervera R. Current treatment of antiphospholipid syndrome: lights and shadows. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2015;11:586–96.

Webster P, Wardle A, Bramham K, et al. Tacrolimus is an effective treatment for lupus nephritis in pregnancy. Lupus. 2014;23:1192–6.

Pham-Huy A, Sadarangani M, Huang V, et al. From mother to baby: antenatal exposure to monoclonal antibody biologics. Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2019;15:221–9.

Webster P, Nelson-Piercy C, Lightstone L. A complicated multisystem flare of systemic lupus erythematosus during pregnancy. BMJ Case Rep. 2017. https://doi.org/10.1136/bcr-2016-217546 .

Spotti D. Pregnancy in women with diabetic nephropathy. J Nephrol. 2019;32:379–88.

Kitzmiller JLMMN. Diabetic nephropathy and pregnancy. In: Kitzmiller JLJL, Brown F, Coustan D, Reader DM, editors. Managing preexisting diabetes and pregnancy. Arlington: American Diabetes Association; 2008. p. 374–86.

Carr DB, Koontz GL, Gardella C, et al. Diabetic nephropathy in pregnancy: suboptimal hypertensive control associated with preterm delivery. Am J Hypertens. 2006;19:513–9.

Mathiesen ER, Ringholm L, Feldt-Rasmussen B, et al. Obstetric nephrology: pregnancy in women with diabetic nephropathy--the role of antihypertensive treatment. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2012;7:2081–8.

Young EC, Pires ML, Marques LP, et al. Effects of pregnancy on the onset and progression of diabetic nephropathy and of diabetic nephropathy on pregnancy outcomes. Diabetes Metab Syndr. 2011;5:137–42.

Ekbom P, Damm P, Feldt-Rasmussen B, et al. Pregnancy outcome in type 1 diabetic women with microalbuminuria. Diabetes Care. 2001;24:1739–44.

Bramham K. Diabetic Nephropathy and Pregnancy. Semin Nephrol. 2017;37:362–9.

Vérier-Mine O, Chaturvedi N, Webb D, et al. Is pregnancy a risk factor for microvascular complications? The EURODIAB Prospective Complications Study. Diabet Med. 2005;22:1503–9.

Temple R. Preconception care for women with diabetes: is it effective and who should provide it. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 2011;25:3–14.

Hod M, van Dijk DJ, Weintraub N, et al. Diabetic nephropathy and pregnancy: the effect of ACE inhibitors prior to pregnancy on fetomaternal outcome. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 1995;10:2328–33.

Bar J, Chen R, Schoenfeld A, et al. Pregnancy outcome in patients with insulin dependent diabetes mellitus and diabetic nephropathy treated with ACE inhibitors before pregnancy. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 1999;12:659–66.

Nielsen LR, Damm P, Mathiesen ER. Improved pregnancy outcome in type 1 diabetic women with microalbuminuria or diabetic nephropathy: effect of intensified antihypertensive therapy? Diabetes Care. 2009;32:38–44.

Smaill FM, Vazquez JC. Antibiotics for asymptomatic bacteriuria in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;7:CD000490.

Excellence NIFHAC. Urinary tract infection (lower): clinical knowledge summaries. 2019;

Parasuraman R, Julian K, AST IDCOP. Urinary tract infections in solid organ transplantation. Am J Transplant. 2013;13(Suppl 4):327–36.

Abbott KC, Swanson SJ, Richter ER, et al. Late urinary tract infection after renal transplantation in the United States. Am J Kidney Dis. 2004;44:353–62.

Dupont PJ, Psimenou E, Lord R, et al. Late recurrent urinary tract infections may produce renal allograft scarring even in the absence of symptoms or vesicoureteric reflux. Transplantation. 2007;84:351–5.

Chuang P, Parikh CR, Langone A. Urinary tract infections after renal transplantation: a retrospective review at two US transplant centers. Clin Transpl. 2005;19:230–5.

Galdo T, González F, Espinoza M, et al. Impact of pregnancy on the function of transplanted kidneys. Transplant Proc. 2005;37:1577–9.

Oliveira LG, Sass N, Sato JL, et al. Pregnancy after renal transplantation - a five-year single-center experience. Clin Transpl. 2007;21:301–4.

Martinell J, Jodal U, Lidin-Janson G. Pregnancies in women with and without renal scarring after urinary infections in childhood. BMJ. 1990;300:840–4.

Hollowell JG. Outcome of pregnancy in women with a history of vesico-ureteric reflux. BJU Int. 2008;102:780–4.

Roihuvuo-Leskinen HM, Vainio MI, Niskanen KM, et al. Pregnancies in women with childhood vesicoureteral reflux. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2015;94:847–51.

Wu M, Wang D, Zand L, et al. Pregnancy outcomes in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease: a case-control study. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2016;29:807–12.

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pyelonephritis (acute): antimicrobial prescribing [NG111]. 2018. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng111 (Accessed May 22 2019).

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing [NG112] 2015. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng112 (Accessed 22 May 2019).

Bonkat G, Bartoletti RRB, F, Cai T et al. European Association of Urology Guideline: Urological Infections. 2018. Available at: https://uroweb.org/guideline/urological-infections/#3_2 (Accessed 22 May 2019).

Greenwell TJ, Venn SN, Creighton S, et al. Pregnancy after lower urinary tract reconstruction for congenital abnormalities. BJU Int. 2003;92:773–7.

Olsburgh J, Willis S. Urological Problems in Pregnancy. In: Bramham K, Hall M, Nelson-Piercy C, editors. Renal Disease in Pregnancy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2018.

Mallik M, Watson AR. Antenatally detected urinary tract abnormalities: more detection but less action. Pediatr Nephrol. 2008;23:897–904.

Noe HN, Wyatt RJ, Peeden JN, et al. The transmission of vesicoureteral reflux from parent to child. J Urol. 1992;148:1869–71.

Skoog SJ, Peters CA, Arant BS, et al. Pediatric vesicoureteral reflux guidelines panel summary report: Clinical practice guidelines for screening siblings of children with vesicoureteral reflux and neonates/infants with prenatal hydronephrosis. J Urol. 2010;184:1145–51.

Elder JS, Peters CA, Arant BS, et al. Pediatric vesicoureteral reflux guidelines panel summary report on the management of primary vesicoureteral reflux in children. J Urol. 1997;157:1846–51.

Wiles KS, Nelson-Piercy C, Bramham K. Reproductive health and pregnancy in women with chronic kidney disease. Nature Nephrology. 2018;14:165–184.