Career Success Networks in China: Sex Differences in Network Composition and Social Exchange Practices

All-China Women's Federation. 2004. Facts and data, http://www.women.org.cn/womenorg/English/english/fact/mulu.htm, All-China Women's Federation: Beijing, 2004, Accessed on: May 24. Antonious, P. H., & Whitman, K. 1995. Work related values of Chinese managers in the People's Republic of China. Journal of Asian Business, 11: 77–96. Baldwin, T. T., Bedell, M. D., & Johnson, J. L. 1997. The social fabric of a team-based M.B.A. program: Network effects on student satisfaction and performance. Academy of Management Journal, 40: 1369–1399. Bass, B. M., & Stogdill, R. M. 1990. Handbook of leadership: Theory, research and managerial applications. New York, NY: The Free Press. Bu, N., & McKeen, C. A. 2000. Work and family expectations of the future managers and professionals of Canada and China. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 15: 771–790. Bu, N., & McKeen, C. A. 2001. Work goals among male and female business students in Canada and china: The effects of culture and gender. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 12: 163–183. Burt, R. S. 1984. Network items and the General Social Survey. Social Networks, 6: 293–339. Burt, R. S. 1992. Structural holes: The social structure of competition. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. Burt, R. S. 1997. The contingent value of social capital. Administrative Science Quarterly, 42: 339–365. Byrne, D. E. 1971. The attraction paradigm. New York: Academic press. Chen, X.-P., & Chen, C. C. 2004. On the intricacies of the Chinese guanxi: A process model of guanxi development. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 21(3): 305–324. Cheng, H. 1997. Holding up half of the sky'? A sociocultural comparison of gender-role portrayals in Chinese and US advertising. International Journal of Advertising, 16(4): 295–319. Cross, S. E., & Markus, H. R. 1993. Gender in thought, belief, and action: A cognitive approach. In A. E. Beall & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.). The Psychology of Gender: 55–98. New York: Guilford Press. Deaux, K., & Major, B. 1982. Putting gender into context: an interactive model of gender-related behavior. Psychological Review, 94: 369–389. Dittmer, L., & Lu, X. 1996. Personal politics in the Chinese danwei under reform. Asian Survey, 36: 246–267. Eagly, A. H., & Mladinic, A. 1983. Gender stereotypes and attitudes toward women and men. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 15: 543–558. Falkenberg, L. 1990. Improving the accuracy of stereotypes within the workplace. Journal of Management, 16(1): 107–118. Goodwin, R., & Tang, C. S.-K. 1996. Chinese personal relationships. In M. H. Bond (Ed.). The Hand Book of Chinese Psychology. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press. Guthrie, D. 1998. The declining significance of guanxi in China's economic transition. The China Quarterly, 154: 254–282. Higgins, L. T., Zhang, M., Liu, Y., & Sun, C. H. 2002. Attitudes to marriage and sexual behaviors: A survey of gender and culture differences in China and United Kingdom. Sex Roles, 46: 75–89. Hong, Z. 1995. The testimony of women writers: the situation of women in China today. In J. Peters & A. Wolper (Eds.). Women's Rights, Human Rights: International Feminist Perspectives. New York, NY: Routledge. Hwang, E. R. 1987. Face and favor: The Chinese power game. American Journal of Sociology, 92: 35–41. Ibarra, H. 1992. Homophily and differential returns: Sex differences in network structure and access in an advertising firm. Administrative Science Quarterly, 37: 422–447. Ibarra, H. 1993. Personal networks of women and minorities in management: A conceptual framework. Academy of Management Review, 18: 56–87. Ibarra, H. 1997. Paving an alternative route: Gender differences in managerial networks. Social Psychology Quarterly, 60: 91–102. Jamieson, K. H. 1995. Beyond the double bind: women and leadership. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Judd, E. R. 1990. Men are more able: Rural Chinese women's conceptions of gender and agency. Pacific Affairs, 63: 40–61. Judge, T. A., & Bretz Jr., R. D. 1994. Political influence behavior and career success. Journal of Management, 20(1): 43–65. Kanter, R. M. 1977. Men and women of the corporation. New York, NY: Basic Books. Kirchmeyer, C. 1998. Determinants of managerial career success: Evidence and explanation of male/female differences. Journal of Management, 24(6): 673–692. Korabik, K. 1999. Sex and gender in the new millennium. In G.N. Powell (Ed.). Handbook of Gender and Work: 3–1, Sage: Thousand Oaks, CA. Leung, A. S. M., & Westwood, R. I. 1998. Between dogma and reality: Women and employment in China. International Employment Relations Review, 4: 57–73. Leung, A. S. M. 2000. Gender differences in guanxi behaviours: An examination of People's Republic of China state-owned enterprises. International Review of Women and Leadership, 6: 48–59. Leung, A. S. M. 2002. Gender and career experiences in mainland Chinese state owned enterprises. Personnel Review, 31: 602–619. Leung, A. S. M. 2003. Feminism in transition: Chinese culture, ideology and the development of the women's movement in China. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 20: 359–374. Lin, N., Ensel, W. M., & Vaughn, J. C. 1981. Social resources and strength of ties: Structural factors in occupational status attainment. American Sociological Review, 46: 393–405. Loscoco, K. A., & Wang, X. 1992. Gender segregation in China. Sociology and Social Research, 76: 118–126. Lovett, S., Simmons, L. C., & Kali, R. 1999. Guanxi versus the market: Ethics and efficiency. Journal of International Business Studies, 30: 231–247. Lu, Z. Z., Maume, D. J., & Bellas, M. L. 2000. Chinese husbands' participation in household labor. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 31: 191–215. Luo, Y., & Chen, M. 1997. Does guanxi influence firm performance? Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 14: 1–16. Marsden, P. V. 1987. Core discussion networks of Americans. American Sociological Review, 55: 122–131. McKeen, C. A., & Bu, N. 2005. Gender roles: An examination of the hopes and expectations of the next generation of managers in Canada and China. Sex Roles, 52: 533–546. McPherson, J. M., & Smith-Lovin, L. 1987. Homophily in voluntary organizations: status distance and the composition of face-to-face groups. American Journal of Sociology, 52: 370–379. Mehra, A., Kilduff, M., & Brass, D. J. 2001. The social networks of high and low self-monitors: Implications for workplace performance. Administrative Science Quarterly, 46: 121–139. Oliver, C. 1992. The antecedents of deinstitutionalization. Organization Studies, 13: 563–588. Podolny, J. M., & Baron, J. N. 1997. Resources and relationships: Social networks and mobility in the workplace. American Sociological Review, 62: 673–693. Ragins, B., & Cotton, J. 1991. Easier said than done: Gender differences in perceived barriers to gain a mentor. Academy of Management Journal, 34: 939–351. Ridley, M. 1997. The origin of virtue: Human instincts and the evolution of cooperation. London, England: Penguin Books. Seligman, S. 1999. Guanxi: Grease for the wheels of China. The China Business Review, September-October: 34–38, . Sprecher, S., & Sedikides, C. 1993. Gender differences in perceptions of emotionality: The case of close heterosexual relationships. Sex Roles, 28: 511–30. Tsang, E. W. K. 1998. Can guanxi be a source of sustained competitive advantage for doing business in China? Academy of Management Executive, 12: 64–73. Tsui, A. S., & Farh, J.-L. L. 1997. Where guanxi matters: Relational demography and guanxi in the Chinese context. Work and Occupations, 24: 56–79. Tsui, A. S., & Gutek, B. A. 1999. Demographic differences in organizations. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books. Vinnicombe, S., & Colwill, N. L. 1996. The essence of women in management. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Walder, A. G. 1986. Communist neo-traditionalism: Work and authority in Chinese industry. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press Westwood, R., Chan, A., & Linstead, S. 2004. Theorizing Chinese employment relations comparatively: Exchange, reciprocity and the moral economy. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 21: 365–389. Wharton, A. S., & Erickson, R. J. 1993. Managing emotions on the job and at home: Understanding the consequences of multiple emotional. Academy of Management Review, 18(3): 457–486. Xi, L. 1985. Are women intellectually inferior to men? Women of China, January: 37. Xin, K. R., & Pearce, J. L. 1996. Guanxi: Connections as substitutes for formal institutional support. Academy of Management Journal, 39: 1641–1658. Yan, Y. 1996. The flow of gifts: Reciprocity and social networks in a Chinese village. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press. Yang, M. 1994. Gifts, favors, and banquets: The art of social relationships in China. New York, NY: Cornell University Press. Yg, C. A. B. O., & Huo, Y. R. 1993. Conceptions of employee responsibilities and rights in the United States and the People's Republic of China. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 4: 85–111. Zhang, C. X., & Farley, J. E. 1995. Gender and the distribution of household work: a comparison of self-reports by female college faculty in the United States and China. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 26: 195–205.