Cardiomyopathies in children: An overview

Monda, 2021, Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy in Children: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Non-sarcomeric Causes, Front Pediatr, 9, 10.3389/fped.2021.632293 Lipshultz, 2019, Cardiomyopathy in Children: Classification and Diagnosis: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association, Circulation, 140, e9, 10.1161/CIR.0000000000000682 Luk, 2009, Dilated cardiomyopathy: a review, J Clin Pathol, 62, 219, 10.1136/jcp.2008.060731 Weintraub, 2017, Dilated cardiomyopathy, Lancet (London, England), 390, 10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31713-5 Ashworth, 2019, Aspects of paediatric cardiovascular pathology, Diagn Histopathol, 25, 313, 10.1016/j.mpdhp.2019.05.003 Reyes, 2021, Paediatric dilated cardiomyopathy with and without endocardial fibroelastosis - a pathological analysis of 89 explants, Cardiol Young, 1 Everitt, 2014, Recovery of echocardiographic function in children with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy: results from the pediatric cardiomyopathy registry, J Am Coll Cardiol, 63, 1405, 10.1016/j.jacc.2013.11.059 Gutgesell, 1977, Evaluation of left ventricular size and function by echocardiography. Results in normal children, Circulation, 56, 457, 10.1161/01.CIR.56.3.457 Levy, 2016, Reference Ranges of Left Ventricular Strain Measures by Two-Dimensional Speckle-Tracking Echocardiography in Children: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis, J Am Soc Echocardiogr, 29, 209, 10.1016/j.echo.2015.11.016 Kamińska, 2019, Usefulness of three-dimensional echocardiography for assessment of left and right ventricular volumes in children, verified by cardiac magnetic resonance. Can we overcome the discrepancy?, Arch Med Sci AMS, 17, 10.5114/aoms.2019.84215 van der Ven, 2020, Multicentre reference values for cardiac magnetic resonance imaging derived ventricular size and function for children aged 0-18 years, Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imag, 21 Green, 2012, Prognostic value of late gadolinium enhancement in clinical outcomes for hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, JACC Cardiovasc Imaging, 5, 370, 10.1016/j.jcmg.2011.11.021 Kirk, 2009, Cardiac T2∗ magnetic resonance for prediction of cardiac complications in thalassemia major, Circulation, 120, 1961, 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.874487 Patel, 2017, Pediatric and adult dilated cardiomyopathy represent distinct pathological entities, JCI insight, 2, 10.1172/jci.insight.94382 Rath, 2021, Overview of Cardiomyopathies in Childhood, Front Pediatr, 9, 10.3389/fped.2021.708732 Alexander, 2013, Long-term outcomes of dilated cardiomyopathy diagnosed during childhood, Circulation, 128, 2039, 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.113.002767 Pahl, 2012, Incidence of and risk factors for sudden cardiac death in children with dilated cardiomyopathy: a report from the Pediatric Cardiomyopathy Registry, J Am Coll Cardiol, 59, 607, 10.1016/j.jacc.2011.10.878 Singh, 2017, Survival without cardiac transplantation among children with dilated cardiomyopathy, J Am Coll Cardiol, 70, 2663, 10.1016/j.jacc.2017.09.1089 Elliott, 2008, Classification of the cardiomyopathies: a position statement from the European Society Of Cardiology Working Group on Myocardial and Pericardial Diseases, Eur Heart J, 29, 270, 10.1093/eurheartj/ehm342 Arbustini, 2013, The MOGE(S) classification for a phenotype-genotype nomenclature of cardiomyopathy: endorsed by the World Heart Federation, J Am Coll Cardiol, 62, 2046, 10.1016/j.jacc.2013.08.1644 Rapezzi, 2013, Diagnostic work-up in cardiomyopathies: bridging the gap between clinical phenotypes and final diagnosis. A position statement from the ESC Working Group on Myocardial and Pericardial Diseases, Eur Heart J, 34, 1448, 10.1093/eurheartj/ehs397 Elliott, 2014, 2014 ESC Guidelines on diagnosis and management of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: the Task Force for the Diagnosis and Management of Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC), Eur Heart J, 35, 2733, 10.1093/eurheartj/ehu284 Marston, 2021, Clinical characteristics and outcomes in childhood-onset hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, Eur Heart J, 42, 1988, 10.1093/eurheartj/ehab148 Lipshultz, 2013, Risk stratification at the time of diagnosis for children with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: a report from the Pediatric Cardiomyopathy Registry Study Group, Lancet, 382, 1889, 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61685-2 Marino, 1999, Congenital heart diseases in children with Noonan syndrome: An expanded cardiac spectrum with high prevalence of atrioventricular canal, J Pediatr, 135, 10.1016/S0022-3476(99)70088-0 Wilkinson, 2012, Outcomes in children with Noonan syndrome and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: a study from the Pediatric Cardiomyopathy Registry, Am Heart J, 164, 442, 10.1016/j.ahj.2012.04.018 Albakri, 2018, Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: A review of literature on clinical status and meta-analysis of diagnosis and clinical management methods, Clin Med Invest, 3 Basso, 2021, Cardiac hypertrophy at autopsy, Virchows Arch, 479, 79, 10.1007/s00428-021-03038-0 Maron, 2009, Clinical outcome and phenotypic expression in LAMP2 cardiomyopathy, JAMA, 301, 1253, 10.1001/jama.2009.371 Liu, 2013, Identification of a novel de novo mutation associated with PRKAG2 cardiac syndrome and early onset of heart failure, PLoS One, 8, 10.1371/journal.pone.0064603 Arad, 2002, Constitutively active AMP kinase mutations cause glycogen storage disease mimicking hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, J Clin Investig, 109, 10.1172/JCI0214571 Olivotto, 2015, Defining phenotypes and disease progression in sarcomeric cardiomyopathies: contemporary role of clinical investigations, Cardiovasc Res, 105, 409, 10.1093/cvr/cvv024 Vio, 2021, Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy and Primary Restrictive Cardiomyopathy: Similarities, Differences and Phenocopies, J Clin Med, 10, 1954 Limongelli, 2020, Prevalence and clinical significance of red flags in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, Int J Cardiol, 299, 186, 10.1016/j.ijcard.2019.06.073 Lioncino, 2022, Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy in RASopathies: Diagnosis, Clinical Characteristics, Prognostic Implications, and Management, Heart Fail Clin, 18, 19, 10.1016/j.hfc.2021.07.004 Keramida, 2020, Right ventricular involvement in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: Patterns and implications, Hellenic J Cardiol, 61, 3, 10.1016/j.hjc.2018.11.009 Maron, 2017, How to image hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, Circ Cardiovasc Imag, 10, 10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.116.005372 Ommen, 2020, 2020 AHA/ACC guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: executive summary: A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Joint Committee on Clinical Practice Guidelines, Circulation, 142, e533 Bonura, 2020, Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging features in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy diagnosed at <21 years of age, Am J Cardiol, 125, 1249, 10.1016/j.amjcard.2020.01.027 Axelsson Raja, 2018, Prevalence and progression of late gadolinium enhancement in children and adolescents with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, Circulation, 138, 782, 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.032966 Todiere, 2012, Progression of myocardial fibrosis assessed with cardiac magnetic resonance in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, J Am Coll Cardiol, 60, 922, 10.1016/j.jacc.2012.03.076 Choi, 2015, Myocardial fibrosis progression on cardiac magnetic resonance in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, Heart, 101, 870, 10.1136/heartjnl-2014-306555 Lee, 2021, Optimal imaging strategy for surveillance in children with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, Prog Pediatr Cardiol, 63, 10.1016/j.ppedcard.2021.101432 Colan, 2007, Epidemiology and cause-specific outcome of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in children, Circulation, 115, 773, 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.621185 Norrish, 2019, Clinical presentation and survival of childhood hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: a retrospective study in United Kingdom, Eur Heart J, 40, 986, 10.1093/eurheartj/ehy798 Miron, 2020, A validated model for sudden cardiac death risk prediction in pediatric hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, Circulation, 142, 217, 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.120.047235 Richard, 2003, Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: distribution of disease genes, spectrum of mutations, and implications for a molecular diagnosis strategy, Circulation, 107, 2227, 10.1161/01.CIR.0000066323.15244.54 Kaski, 2009, Prevalence of sarcomere protein gene mutations in preadolescent children with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, Circ Cardiovasc Genet, 2, 436, 10.1161/CIRCGENETICS.108.821314 Norrish, 2019, Development of a novel risk prediction model for sudden cardiac death in childhood hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM Risk-Kids), JAMA Cardiol, 4, 918, 10.1001/jamacardio.2019.2861 Norrish, 2022, External validation of the HCM Risk-Kids model for predicting sudden cardiac death in childhood hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, Eur J Prev Cardiol, 29, 678, 10.1093/eurjpc/zwab181 Xia, 2022, Factors associated with the risk of cardiac death in children with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: a systematic review and meta-analysis, Heart Lung, 52, 26, 10.1016/j.hrtlng.2021.11.006 Norrish, 2021, Childhood hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: a disease of the cardiac sarcomere, Front Pediatr, 9, 10.3389/fped.2021.708679 Lipshultz, 2003, The incidence of pediatric cardiomyopathy in two regions of the United States, N Engl J Med, 348, 1647, 10.1056/NEJMoa021715 Germanakis, 2015 Arbustini, 2014, The MOGE(S) classification of cardiomyopathy for clinicians, J Am Coll Cardiol, 64, 304, 10.1016/j.jacc.2014.05.027 Nagueh, 2014, Anderson-Fabry disease and other lysosomal storage disorders, Circulation, 130, 1081, 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.114.009789 Kylat, 2021, Mucolipidosis II, J Pediatr, 229, 302, 10.1016/j.jpeds.2020.09.070 Leal, 2010, Echocardiographic study of paediatric patients with mucopolysaccharidosis, Cardiol Young, 20, 254, 10.1017/S104795110999062X Linhart, 2007, The heart in Anderson-Fabry disease and other lysosomal storage disorders, Heart (British Cardiac Society), 93, 10.1136/hrt.2005.063818 Saraçlar, 1992, Gaucher's disease with mitral and aortic involvement: echocardiographic findings, Pediatr Cardiol, 13, 56, 10.1007/BF00788233 Dangel, 1998, Cardiovascular changes in children with mucopolysaccharide storage diseases and related disorders--clinical and echocardiographic findings in 64 patients, Eur J Pediatr, 157, 534, 10.1007/s004310050872 Webber, 2012, Outcomes of restrictive cardiomyopathy in childhood and the influence of phenotype, Circulation, 126, 1237, 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.112.104638 Kaski, 2008, Idiopathic restrictive cardiomyopathy in children is caused by mutations in cardiac sarcomere protein genes, Heart, 94, 1478, 10.1136/hrt.2007.134684 Lee, 2017, Pediatric cardiomyopathies, Circ Res, 121, 855, 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.116.309386 Sasaki, 2015, Applicability of published guidelines for assessment of left ventricular diastolic function in adults to children with restrictive cardiomyopathy: an observational study, Pediatr Cardiol, 36, 386, 10.1007/s00246-014-1018-z Ditaranto, 2022, Pediatric restrictive cardiomyopathies, Front Pediatr, 9, 10.3389/fped.2021.745365 Syed, 2014, Constrictive pericarditis--a curable diastolic heart failure, Nat Rev Cardiol, 11, 530, 10.1038/nrcardio.2014.100 Gupta, 2012, Cardiac MRI in restrictive cardiomyopathy, Clin Radiol, 67, 95, 10.1016/j.crad.2011.05.020 Basso, 1996, Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy. Dysplasia, dystrophy, or myocarditis?, Circulation, 94, 10.1161/01.CIR.94.5.983 Te Riele, 2015, Arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy in the pediatric population: clinical characterization and comparison with adult-onset disease, JACC Clin Electrophysiol, 1, 551, 10.1016/j.jacep.2015.08.004 Sen-Chowdhry, 2007, Clinical and genetic characterization of families with arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy provides novel insights into patterns of disease expression, Circulation, 115, 1710, 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.660241 Chungsomprasong, 2017, Left ventricular function in children and adolescents with arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy, Am J Cardiol, 119, 778, 10.1016/j.amjcard.2016.11.020 Corrado, 2017, Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy, N Engl J Med, 376, 61, 10.1056/NEJMra1509267 Thiene, 1988, Right ventricular cardiomyopathy and sudden death in young people, N Engl J Med, 318, 129, 10.1056/NEJM198801213180301 Elliott, 2019, Definition and treatment of arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy: an updated expert panel report, Eur J Heart Fail, 21, 955, 10.1002/ejhf.1534 Asimaki, 2009, A new diagnostic test for arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy, N Engl J Med, 360, 1075, 10.1056/NEJMoa0808138 Bosman, 2020, Diagnosing arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy by 2010 Task Force Criteria: clinical performance and simplified practical implementation, Europace, 22, 787, 10.1093/europace/euaa039 Casella, 2021, Endomyocardial biopsy: the forgotten piece in the arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy puzzle, J Am Heart Assoc, 10 Ackerman, 2011, HRS/EHRA expert consensus statement on the state of genetic testing for the channelopathies and cardiomyopathies this document was developed as a partnership between the Heart Rhythm Society (HRS) and the European Heart Rhythm Association (EHRA), Heart Rhythm, 8, 1308, 10.1016/j.hrthm.2011.05.020 Protonotarios, 2019, Prevalence of 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography abnormalities in patients with arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy, Int J Cardiol, 284, 99, 10.1016/j.ijcard.2018.10.083 Marcus, 2010, Diagnosis of arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy/dysplasia: proposed modification of the Task Force Criteria, Eur Heart J, 31, 806, 10.1093/eurheartj/ehq025 Migliore, 2012, Prevalence of cardiomyopathy in Italian asymptomatic children with electrocardiographic T-wave inversion at preparticipation screening, Circulation, 125, 529, 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.111.055673 Protonotarios, 2015, Clinical significance of epsilon waves in arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy, J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol, 26, 1204, 10.1111/jce.12755 James, 2021, International evidence based reappraisal of genes associated with arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy using the clinical genome resource framework, Circ Genom Precis Med, 14, 10.1161/CIRCGEN.120.003273 Steinmetz, 2018, Diagnosing ARVC in pediatric patients applying the revised task force criteria: importance of imaging, 12-lead ECG, and genetics, Pediatr Cardiol, 39, 1156, 10.1007/s00246-018-1875-y Lemmer Hunsinger, 2014, Reference intervals for the echocardiographic measurements of the right heart in children and adolescents: a systematic review, Cardiovasc Ultrasound, 12 Etoom, 2015, Importance of CMR within the Task Force Criteria for the diagnosis of ARVC in children and adolescents, J Am Coll Cardiol, 65, 987, 10.1016/j.jacc.2014.12.041 Slesnick, 2020, Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging macroscopic fibro-fatty infiltration of the myocardium in pediatric patients with arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy/dysplasia, Fetal Pediatr Pathol, 39, 455, 10.1080/15513815.2019.1675108 Yoo, 2010, Magnetic resonance imaging assessment of arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy/dysplasia in children, Korean Circ J, 40, 357, 10.4070/kcj.2010.40.8.357 Corrado, 2020, Diagnosis of arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy: The Padua criteria, Int J Cardiol, 319, 106, 10.1016/j.ijcard.2020.06.005 Cicenia, 2022, Arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy in children according to “Padua criteria”: Single pediatric center experience, Int J Cardiol, 350, 83, 10.1016/j.ijcard.2022.01.008 McKoy, 2000, Identification of a deletion in plakoglobin in arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy with palmoplantar keratoderma and woolly hair (Naxos disease), Lancet, 355, 2119, 10.1016/S0140-6736(00)02379-5 Norgett, 2000, Recessive mutation in desmoplakin disrupts desmoplakin-intermediate filament interactions and causes dilated cardiomyopathy, woolly hair and keratoderma, Hum Mol Genet, 9, 2761, 10.1093/hmg/9.18.2761 Protonotarios, 2006, Naxos disease: cardiocutaneous syndrome due to cell adhesion defect, Orphanet J Rare Dis, 1, 4, 10.1186/1750-1172-1-4 Pigors, 2015, Desmoplakin mutations with palmoplantar keratoderma, woolly hair and cardiomyopathy, Acta Derm Venereol, 95, 337, 10.2340/00015555-1974 Alcalai, 2003, A recessive mutation in desmoplakin causes arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia, skin disorder, and woolly hair, J Am Coll Cardiol, 42, 319, 10.1016/S0735-1097(03)00628-4 Kaplan, 2004, Remodeling of myocyte gap junctions in arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy due to a deletion in plakoglobin (Naxos disease), Heart Rhythm, 1, 3, 10.1016/j.hrthm.2004.01.001 Mavrogeni, 2013, Naxos disease evolution mimicking acute myocarditis: the role of cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging, Int J Cardiol, 166, e14, 10.1016/j.ijcard.2012.12.078 Smith, 2020, Desmoplakin cardiomyopathy, a fibrotic and inflammatory form of cardiomyopathy distinct from typical dilated or arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy, Circulation, 141, 1872, 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.119.044934 Bariani, 2021, Hot phase” clinical presentation in arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy, Europace, 23, 907, 10.1093/europace/euaa343 Scheel, 2021, Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy presenting as clinical myocarditis in women, Am J Cardiol, 145, 128, 10.1016/j.amjcard.2020.12.090 Lota, 2022, Genetic architecture of acute myocarditis and the overlap with inherited cardiomyopathy, Circulation, 146, 1123, 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.121.058457 DeWitt, 2019, Phenotypic manifestations of arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy in children and adolescents, J Am Coll Cardiol, 74, 346, 10.1016/j.jacc.2019.05.022 Groeneweg, 2015, Clinical presentation, long-term follow-up, and outcomes of 1001 arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy patients and family members, Circ Cardiovasc Genet, 8, 437, 10.1161/CIRCGENETICS.114.001003 Klauke, 2017, High proportion of genetic cases in patients with advanced cardiomyopathy including a novel homozygous Plakophilin 2-gene mutation, PLoS One, 12, 10.1371/journal.pone.0189489 Chen, 2019, A founder homozygous DSG2 variant in East Asia results in ARVC with full penetrance and heart failure phenotype, Int J Cardiol, 274, 263, 10.1016/j.ijcard.2018.06.105 Cadrin-Tourigny, 2022, A new prediction model for ventricular arrhythmias in arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy, Eur Heart J, 20 Protonotarios, 2022, Importance of genotype for risk stratification in arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy using the 2019 ARVC risk calculator, Eur Heart J, 43, 3053, 10.1093/eurheartj/ehac235 Hershberger, 2018, Genetic Evaluation of Cardiomyopathy-A Heart Failure Society of America Practice Guideline, J Card Fail, 24, 281, 10.1016/j.cardfail.2018.03.004 Te Riele, 2021, Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy in pediatric patients: an important but underrecognized clinical entity, Front Pediatr, 9, 10.3389/fped.2021.750916 Zorzi, 2021, Role of exercise as a modulating factor in arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy, Curr Cardiol Rep, 23, 57, 10.1007/s11886-021-01489-0 Towbin, 2015, Left ventricular non-compaction cardiomyopathy, Lancet, 386, 813, 10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61282-4 Di Toro, 2020, Myths to debunk: the non-compacted myocardium, Eur Heart J Suppl, 22, L6, 10.1093/eurheartj/suaa124 Burke, 2005, Left ventricular noncompaction: a pathological study of 14 cases, Hum Pathol, 36, 403, 10.1016/j.humpath.2005.02.004 Brescia, 2013, Mortality and sudden death in pediatric left ventricular noncompaction in a tertiary referral center, Circulation, 127, 2202, 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.113.002511 Petersen, 2005, Left ventricular non-compaction: insights from cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging, J Am Coll Cardiol, 46, 101, 10.1016/j.jacc.2005.03.045 Jacquier, 2010, Measurement of trabeculated left ventricular mass using cardiac magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnosis of left ventricular non-compaction, Eur Heart J, 31, 1098, 10.1093/eurheartj/ehp595 van Waning, 2021, Diagnostic cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging criteria in noncompaction cardiomyopathy and the yield of genetic testing, Can J Cardiol, 37, 433, 10.1016/j.cjca.2020.05.021 Heymans, 2016, The quest for new approaches in myocarditis and inflammatory cardiomyopathy, J Am Coll Cardiol, 68, 2348, 10.1016/j.jacc.2016.09.937 Caforio, 2013, Current state of knowledge on aetiology, diagnosis, management, and therapy of myocarditis: a position statement of the European Society of Cardiology Working Group on Myocardial and Pericardial Diseases, Eur Heart J, 34, 2636, 10.1093/eurheartj/eht210 Imanaka-Yoshida, 2020, Inflammation in myocardial disease: From myocarditis to dilated cardiomyopathy, Pathol Int, 70, 1, 10.1111/pin.12868 Kim, 2020, Acute myocarditis in children: a 10-year Nationwide Study (2007-2016) based on the Health Insurance Review and Assessment Service Database in Korea, Korean circulation journal, 50, 10.4070/kcj.2020.0108 Allan Arbustini, 2020, Genetic basis of myocarditis: myth or reality?, 45 Baggio, 2021, Myocarditis: which role for genetics?, Curr Cardiol Rep, 23, 58, 10.1007/s11886-021-01492-5 Protonotarios, 2018, Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy as a hidden cause of paediatric myocarditis presentation, Int J Cardiol, 271, 113, 10.1016/j.ijcard.2018.06.117 Kontorovich, 2021, Myopathic cardiac genotypes increase risk for myocarditis, JACC Basic Translat Sci, 6 McClean, 2019, Diagnostic accuracy and Bayesian analysis of new international ECG recommendations in paediatric athletes, Heart, 105, 152, 10.1136/heartjnl-2018-313466 Malhotra, 2020, Accuracy of the 2017 international recommendations for clinicians who interpret adolescent athletes' ECGs: a cohort study of 11,168 British white and black soccer players, Br J Sports Med, 54, 739, 10.1136/bjsports-2017-098528 McClean, 2019, Prevalence and significance of T-wave inversion in Arab and Black paediatric athletes: Should anterior T-wave inversion interpretation be governed by biological or chronological age?, Eur J Prev Cardiol, 26, 641, 10.1177/2047487318811956 Bales, 2016, Comprehensive Versus Targeted Genetic Testing in Children with Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy, Pediatr Cardiol, 37, 845, 10.1007/s00246-016-1358-y