Burning at the Edge: Integrating Biophysical and Eco-Cultural Fire Processes in Canada’s Parks and Protected Areas
Tóm tắt
Currently, high intensity, large-area lightning fires that burn during droughts dominate Canada’s fire regimes. However, studies from several disciplines clearly show that humans historically ignited burns within this matrix of large fires. Two approaches for fire research and management have arisen from this pattern: a “large-fire biophysical paradigm” related to lightning-ignited fires, and an “eco-cultural paradigm” related to human-caused burning. Working at the edge between biophysically driven fires and eco-cultural burns, and their associated management and research paradigms, presents unique challenges to land managers. We proceed by describing fire frequency trends across Canada, and how an interaction between changing climatic and cultural factors may provide better causal explanations for observed patterns than either group of factors alone. We then describe four case histories of fire restoration into Canadian landscapes moving through evolution, or deliberate intent, towards increasing emphasis on an eco-cultural paradigm. We show that use of cultural burns maintains this facet of the long-term regime while providing greater capacity for larger, higher intensity fires to occur with fewer negative ecological and socio-economic implications. Key lessons learned by practitioners restoring fire to landscapes include: 1) fire is only one process in ecosystems that also include other complex interactions, and thus restoration of fire alone could have unintended consequences in some ecosystems; 2) recognizing long-term human roles of not only fire managers, but also hunters and gatherers is critical in restoration programs; and 3) this diversity of past, present, and future ecological and cultural interactions with fire can link managers to a broad constituency of stakeholders. Bringing this variety of people and interests into the decision-making processes is a necessary pre-requisite to successful fire management at the edge.
Tài liệu tham khảo
Achard, F., H.D. Eva, D. Mollicone, and R. Beuchle. 2008. The effect of climatic anomalies and human ignition factor on wildfires in Russian boreal forests. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 363: 2331–2339. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2007.2203
Amiro, B.D., K.A. Logan, B.M. Wotton, M.D. Flannigan, J.B. Todd, B.J. Stocks, and D.L. Martell. 2004. Fire weather index components for large fires in the Canadian boreal forest. International Journal of Wildland Fire 13: 391–400. doi: 10.1071/WF03066
Anderson, K.R., P. Englefield, J.M. Little, and G. Reuter. 2009. An approach to operational forest fire growth predictions for Canada. International Journal of Wildland Fire 18: 893–905. doi: 10.1071/WF08046
Anderson, K.R. 2010. A climatologically based fire-growth model. International Journal of Wildland Fire 19: 879–894. doi: 10.1071/WF09053
Barrett, S., and S. Arno. 1999. Indian fires in the northern Rockies: ethnohistory and ecology. Pages 50–64 in: R. Boyd, editor. Indians, fire and the land in the Pacific Northwest. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, USA.
Barrett, S.W., T.W. Swetnam, and W.L. Baker. 2005. Indian fire use: deflating the legend. Fire Management Today 65(3): 31–34.
Baker, W.L. 2009. Fire ecology in Rocky Mountain landscapes. Island Press, Washington, D.C., USA.
Beckwith, B. 2004. “The queen root of this cline:” ethno-ecological investigations of blue camas (Camassia leitchlinii (Baker) Wats., C. Quamash (Purch) Greene; Liliaceae) and its landscapes on southern Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Dissertation, University of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada.
Bergeron, Y. 1991. The influence of island and mainland lakeshore landscape on boreal fire regimes. Ecology 72: 1978–1992. doi: 10.2307/1941553
Bergeron, Y., and S. Archambault. 1993. Decreasing frequency of fires in the southern boreal zone of Quebéc and its relationship to global warming since the end of the “Little Ice Age.” Holocene 3: 255–259. doi: 10.1177/095968369300300307
Bergeron, Y., S. Gauthier, V. Kafka, P. Lefort, and D. Lesieur. 2001. Natural fire frequency for the eastern boreal forest: consequences for sustainable forestry. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 31: 384–391. doi: 10.1139/cjfr-31-3-384
Bergeron, Y., M. Flannigan, S. Gauthier, A. Leduc, and P. Lefort. 2004a. Past, current, and future fire frequency in the Canadian boreal forest: implications for sustainable resource management. Ambio 33: 356–360.
Bergeron, Y., S. Gauthier, M. Flannigan, and V. Kafka. 2004b. Fire regimes at the transition between mixedwood and coniferous boreal forest in northwestern Quebec. Ecology 85: 1916–1932. doi: 10.1890/02-0716
Binnema, T. 2001. Common and contested ground: a human and environmental history of the northwestern plains. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, USA.
Binnema, T., and M. Niemi. 2006. “Let the line be drawn now:” wilderness, conservation, and the exclusion of aboriginal people from the Banff National Park in Canada. Environmental History 11: 724–750. doi: 10.1093/envhis/11.4.724
Bjorkman, A.D., and M. Vellend. 2010. Defining historical baselines for conservation: ecological changes since European settlement on Vancouver Island, Canada. Conservation Biology 24: 1559–1568. doi: 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2010.01550.x
Bond, G., W. Showers, M. Cheseby, R. Lotti, P. Almasi, P. de Menocal, P. Priore, H. Cullen, I. Hajdas, and G. Bonani. 1997. A pervasive millennial-scale cycle in North Atlantic holocene and glacial climates. Science 278: 1257–1266. doi: 10.1126/science.278.5341.1257
Bothwell, P.M., W.J. de Groot, D.E. Dube, T. Chowns, D.H. Carlsson, and C.N. Stefner. 2004. Fire regimes in Nahanni National Park and the Mackenzie Bison Sanctuary. Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference 22: 43–54.
Bouchard, M., D. Pothier, and S. Gauthier. 2008. Fire return intervals and tree species succession in the North Shore region of eastern Quebec. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 38: 1621–1633. doi: 10.1139/X07-201
Bowman, D.M.J.S., A. Walsh, and L.D. Prior. 2004. Landscape analysis of aboriginal fire management in central Arnhem Land, north Australia. Journal of Biogeography 31: 207–223. doi: 10.1046/j.0305-0270.2003.00997.x
Boyd, R. 1999. Indians, fire, and the land in the Pacific Northwest. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, USA.
Bridge, S.R.J., K. Miyanishi, E.A. Johnson. 2005. A critical evaluation of fire suppression effects in the boreal forest of Ontario. Forest Science 51: 41–50.
Brown, P.M., and C.H. Sieg. 1999. Historical variability in fire at the ponderosa pine-northern Great Plains prairie ecotone, southeastern Black Hills, South Dakota. Ecoscience 6: 539–547.
Byambasuren, O., M. Muehlenberg, M. Worbes, and B. Nachin. 2010. Forest fire and stand dynamics in west Khentey Mountains, Mongolia. Page A1.03 in: K. Mielikäinen, H. Mäkinen, and M. Timonen, editors. Abstracts of the 8th International Conference on Dendrochronology. WorldDendro 2010, 13–18 June 2010, Rovaniemi, Finland.
Canadian Forest Service. 2010. Historical analysis: Canadian Wildland Fire Information System. <http://cwfis.cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/en_CA/hamaps/fwnormals>. Accessed 25 May 2010.
Canadian Wildland Fire Strategy Task Group. 2005. Canadian wildland fire strategy. Report to Canadian Council of Forest Ministers. Canadian Forest Service, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
Carbyn, L.N. 1971. Description of the Festuca scabrella association in Prince Albert National Park, Saskatchewan. Canadian Field-Naturalist 85: 25–30.
Carcaillet, C., A.A. Ali, O. Blarquez, A. Genries, B. Mourier, L. Bremont. 2009. Spatial variability of fire history in subalpine forests: from natural to cultural regimes. Ecoscience 16: 1–12. doi: 10.2980/16-1-3189
Chapin, F.S., T.S. Rupp, A.M. Starfield, L. DeWilde, E.S. Zavaleta, N. Fresco, J. Henkelman, and A.D. McGuire. 2003. Planning for resilience: modeling change in human-fire interactions in the Alaska boreal forest. Frontiers in Ecology and Environment 1: 255–261. doi: 10.1890/1540-9295(2003)001[0255:PFRMCI]2.0.CO;2
Clark, J.S. 1995. Climate and Indian effects on southern Ontario forests: a reply to Campbell and McAndrews. Holocene 5: 371–379. doi: 10.1177/095968369500500315
Cumming, S. 2005. Effective fire suppression in boreal forests. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 35: 772–786. doi: 10.1139/x04-174
Cwynar, L.C. 1977. The recent fire history of Barron Township, Algonquin Park, Ontario. Canadian Journal of Botany 55: 1524–1538. doi: 10.1139/b77-180
Daniels, L.D., and R.W. Gray. 2006. Disturbance regimes in coastal British Columbia. BC Journal of Ecosystems and Management 7: 44–56.
Daniels, L., J. Cochrane, R.W. Gray, and R. Kubian. 2009. Fire history of montane forests of the East Kootenays. University of British Columbia Tree-Ring Laboratory Report. Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
Day, G.M. 1953. The Indian as an ecological factor in the northeastern forest. Ecology 34: 329–346. doi: 10.2307/1930900
Dey, D.C., and R.P. Guyette. 2000. Anthropogenic fire history and red oak forests in south-central Ontario. Forestry Chronicle 76: 339–347.
Dods, R.R. 2004. Knowing ways/ways of knowing: reconciling science and tradition. World Archaeology 36:547–557. doi: 10.1080/0043824042000303719
Domaine, E., and C. Hebert. 2008. Fire: an ally for the regeneration of eastern white pine stands. Laurentian Forestry Centre. Branching Out 46: 1–2.
Drobyshev, I., M. Niklasson, P. Angelstram, and P. Majewski. 2004. Testing for anthropogenic influence on fire regime for a 600-year period in the Jaksha area, Komi Republic, east European Russia. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 34: 2027–2036. doi: 10.1139/x04-081
Farukh, M.A., H. Hukasaka, and O. Mishigdorj. 2009. Recent tendency of Mongolian wildfire incidence: analysis using MODIS hotspot and weather data. Journal of Natural Disaster Science 31: 23–33. doi: 10.2328/jnds.31.23
Fernández-Giménez, M. 1993. The role of ecological perception in indigenous resource management: a case study from the Mongolian forest-steppe. Nomadic Peoples 33: 31–46.
Ferretti, D.F., J.B. Miller, J.W.C. White, D.M. Etheridge, K.R. Lassey, D.C. Lowe, C.M. McFarling Meure, M.F. Dreier, C.M. Trudinger, T.D. van Ommen, and R.L. Langenfelds. 2005. Unexpected changes to the global methane budget over the past 2000 years. Science 309: 1714–1717.
Feunekes, U., and C.E. Van Wagner. 1995. A century of fire and weather in Banff National Park. Parks Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
Fisher, R.F., M.J. Jenkins, and W.F. Fisher. 1987. Fire and the prairie-forest mosaic of Devil’s Tower National Monument. American Midland Naturalist 117: 250–257. doi: 10.2307/2425966
Flannigan, M.D., and C.E. Van Wagner. 1991. Climate change and wildfire in Canada. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 21: 66–72. doi: 10.1139/x91-010
Flannigan, M.D., Y. Bergeron, O. Engelmark, and B.M. Wotton. 1998. Future wildfire in circumboreal forests. Journal of Vegetation Science 9: 469–476. doi: 10.2307/3237261
Flannigan, M.D., K.A. Logan, B.D. Amiro, W.R. Skinner, B.J. Stocks. 2005. Future burn area in Canada. Climate Change 72: 1–16. doi: 10.1007/s10584-005-5935-y
Frandsen, D. 2008. Update from the park: Erickson Prescribed Fire. Bison Times 4: 4–5.
Hallet, D.J., D.S. Leposky, R.W. Mathewes, and K.P. Lertman. 2003. 11,000 years of fire history and climate in the mountain hemlock rain forests of southwestern British Columbia based upon sedimentary charcoal. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 33: 292–312. doi: 10.1139/x02-177
Hamer, D., and S. Herrero. 1987. Wildfire influences on grizzly bear ecology in Banff National Park, Alberta. International Conference of Bear Research and Ecology 7: 179–186.
Hawkes, B.C., W. Vasbinder, and C. DeLong. 1997. Fire regimes in the SBSvk & ESSFwk2/wc3 biogeoclimatic units of northeastern British Columbia. McGregor Model Forest Association, Prince George, British Columbia, Canada.
Heinselman, M.L. 1973. Fire in the virgin forests of the Boundary Waters Canoe Area, Minnesota. Quaternary Research 3: 329–382. doi: 10.1016/0033-5894(73)90003-3
Heyerdahl, E.K., R.F. Miller, and R.A. Parsons. 2006. History of fire and Douglas-fir establishment in a savanna and sagebrush-grassland mosaic in southwestern Montana, USA. Forest Ecology and Management 230: 107–118. doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2006.04.024
Heyerdahl, E.K., K. Lertzmann, and S. Karpuk. 2007. Local scale controls of a low-severity fire regime (1750–1950), southern British Columbia, Canada. Ecoscience 14: 40–47. doi: 10.2980/1195-6860(2007)14[40:LCOALF]2.0.CO;2
Hind, H.Y. 1858. Narrative of the Canadian Red River exploring expedition of 1857 and the Assiniboine and Saskatchewan exploring expeditions of 1858. 1971, cmreprint. Charles E. Tuttle Company, Rutland, Vermont, USA.
Gassaway, L. 2009. Native American fire patterns in Yosemite Valley: archaeology, dendrochronology, subsistence, and cultural change in the Sierra Nevada. Society for California Archaeology Proceedings 22: 1–9.
Gavin, D.G., L.B. Brubaker, and K.P. Lertzman. 2003. Holocene fire history of a coastal temperate rain forest based on soil charcoal radio-carbon dates. Ecology 84: 186–201. doi: 10.1890/0012-9658(2003)084[0186:HFHOAC]2.0.CO;2
Girardin, M.P., J. Tardif, M.D. Flannigan, B.W. Wotton, Y. Bergeron. 2004. Trends and periodicities in the Canadian Drought Code and their relationships with atmospheric circulation for the southern boreal Canadian forest. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 34: 103–119. doi: 10.1139/x03-195
Girardin, M.P. 2007. Interannual to decadal change in area burned in Canada from 1781 to 1982 and the relationship to North American land temperatures. Global Ecology and Biogeography 16: 557–566. doi: 10.1111/j.1466-8238.2007.00321.x
Girardin, M.P., and D. Sauchyn. 2008. Three centuries of annual area burned variability in northwestern North America inferred from tree rings. The Holocene 18: 205–214. doi: 10.1177/0959683607086759
Girardin, M.P., A.A. Ali, C. Carcaillet, M. Mudelsee, I. Drobyshev, C. Hély, and Y. Bergeron. 2009. Heterogenous response of circumboreal wildfire risk to climate change since the early 1900s. Global Change Biology 15: 2751–2769. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2009.01869.x
Govender, N. 2004. Fire management in Kruger National Park. Aridlands 54 November–December 2004.
Granström, A., and M. Niklasson. 2008. Potentials and limitations for human control over historic fire regimes in the boreal forest. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 363: 2353–2358.
Gray, R.W., E. Riccius, and C. Wong. 2004. Comparison of current and historical stand structure in two interior Douglas-fir sites in the Rocky Mountain Trench, British Columbia. Proceedings of the Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference 22: 23–35.
Guyette, R.P., D.C. Dey, and C. McDonnell. 1995. Determining fire history from old white pine stumps in an oak-pine forest in Bracebridge, Ontario. Forest Research Report 133. Ontario Forest Research Institute, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, Canada.
Johnson, D., O. Byambasuren, R.L. Myers, and M. Babler. 2009. Fire management assessment of the eastern steppe, Mongolia. GFI Technical Report 2009-1a. The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, Virginia, USA.
Johnson, E.A. 1979. Fire recurrence in the subarctic and its implications for vegetation composition. Canadian Journal of Botany 57: 1374–1379. doi: 10.1139/b79-171
Johnson, E.A., and C.E. Van Wagner. 1985. The theory and use of two fire history models. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 15: 214–220. doi: 10.1139/x85-039
Johnson, E.A., G.I. Fryer, and M.J. Heathcott. 1990. The influence of man and climate on frequency of fire in the interior wet belt forest, British Columbia. Journal of Ecology 78: 403–412. doi: 10.2307/2261120
Johnson, E.A., and C.P.S. Larsen. 1991. Climatically induced change in fire frequency in the southern Canadian Rockies. Ecology 72: 194–201. doi: 10.2307/1938914
Johnson, E.A., and D.R. Wowchuck. 1993. Wildfires in the southern Canadian Rocky Mountains and their relationship to mid-tropospheric anomalies. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 23: 1213–1222. doi: 10.1139/x93-153
Johnson, E.A., and S.L. Gutsell. 1994. Fire frequency models, methods, and interpretations. Advances in Ecological Research 25: 239–287. doi: 10.1016/S0065-2504(08)60216-0
Johnson, E.A., K. Miyanishi, and J.M.H. Weir. 1998. Wildfires in the western Canadian boreal forest: landscape patterns and ecosystem management. Journal of Vegetation Science 9: 603–610. doi: 10.2307/3237276
Johnson, E.A., and K. Miyanishi, editors. 2001. Forest fires: behavior and ecological effects. Academic Press, San Diego, California, USA.
Johnson-Gottesfeld, L.M. 1994. Aboriginal burning for vegetation management in northwest British Columbia. Human Ecology 22: 171–188. doi: 10.1007/BF02169038
Kasasichke, E.S., and M.R. Turetsky. 2006. Recent changes in fire regime across the North American boreal region—spatial and temporal patterns of burning across Canada and Alaska. Geophysical Research Letters 33: L09703.
Kasasichke, E.S., D.L. Verbyla, T.S. Rupp, A.D. McGuire, K.A. Murphy, R. Jandt, J.L. Barnes, E.E. Hoy, P.A. Duffy, M. Calef, and M.R. Turetsky. 2010. Alaska’s changing fire regime—implications for the vulnerability of its boreal forests. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 40: 1313–1324. doi: 10.1139/X10-098
Kay, C.E. 2007. Are lightning fires unnatural?: A comparison of lightning and aboriginal ignition rates in the United States. Proceedings of the Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference 23: 16–28.
Kay, C.E., and C.A. White. 1995. Long-term ecosystem states and processes in the central Canadian Rockies: a new perspective on ecological integrity and ecosystem management. Pages 119–132 in: R.M. Linn, editor. Sustainable society and protected areas. Contributed papers of the 8th Conference on Research and Resource Management in Parks and on Public Lands. George Wright Society, 17–21 April 1995, Portland, Oregon, USA.
Kopra, K., and M.C. Feller. 2007. Fires and old-growth forest abundance in wet, cold Engelman spruce-subalpine fir forests of British Columbia, Canada. Natural Areas Journal 27: 345–353. doi: 10.3375/0885-8608(2007)27[345:FFAOFA]2.0.CO;2
Krawchuk, M.A., M.A. Moritz, M.A. Parisien, J. Van Dorn, and K. Hayhoe. 2009. Global pyrogeography: the current and future distribution of wildfire. PLoS ONE 4(4): e5102. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0005102
Larsen, C.P.S. 1997. Spatial and temporal variations in boreal fire frequency in northern Alberta. Journal of Biogeography 24: 663–673. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2699.1997.tb00076.x
Lauzon, E., D. Kneeshaw, and Y. Bergeron. 2007. Reconstruction of fire history (1680–2003) in the Gaspesian mixed-wood boreal forests of eastern Canada. Forest Ecology and Management 244: 41–49. doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2007.03.064
Lavoie, N., and M.E. Alexander. 2004. Experimental reburns 1–4 years after a high intensity crown fire. Proceedings of the Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference 22: 229.
Lavorel, S., M.D. Flannigan, E.F. Lambin, and M.C. Sholes. 2007. Vulnerability of land systems to fire: interactions among humans, climate, the atmosphere, and ecosystems. Mitigation and Adaptive Strategies for Global Change 12: 33–53. doi: 10.1007/s11027-006-9046-5
Lawson, B.D., W.H. Frandsen, B.C. Hawkes, and G.N. Dalrymple. 1997. Probability of sustained smoldering ignition for some boreal forest duff types. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service Forest Management Note 63. Northern Forestry Centre, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
Lefort, P., S. Gauthier, and Y. Bergeron. 2003. The influence of fire weather and land use on fire activity in the Lake Abitibi area of eastern Canada. Forest Science 49: 509–521.
Lefort, P., A. Leduc, S. Gauthier, and Y. Bergeron. 2004. Recent fire regime in the boreal forest of western Quebec. Ecoscience 11: 433–445.
Le Goff, H., M.D. Flannigan, Y. Bergeron, and M.P. Girardin. 2007. Historical fire regime shifts related to climate tele-connections in the Waswanipi area, central Quebec, Canada. International Journal of Wildland Fire 16: 607–618. doi: 10.1071/WF06151
Lepofsky, D., and K. Lertzman. 2008. Documenting ancient plant management in the northwest of North America. Botany 86:129–145. doi: 10.1139/B07-094
Lertzman, K., J. Fall, and B. Dorner. 1998. Three kinds of heterogeneity in fire regimes: at the crossroads of fire history and landscape ecology. Northwest Science 72: 4–22.
Lertzman, K., D. Gavin, D. Hallett, L. Brubaker, D. Lepofsky, and R. Mathewes. 2002. Long-term fire regime estimated from soil charcoal in coastal rain forests. Conservation Ecology 6(2): 5. <http://www.consecol.org/vol6/iss2/art5>. Accessed 25 March 2010.
Lewis, H.T. 1980. Indian fires of spring. Natural History 89: 76–83.
Lewis, H.T., and T.A. Ferguson. 1988. Yards, corridors and mosaics: how to burn a boreal forest. Human Ecology 16: 57–77. doi: 10.1007/BF01262026
Loope, W.L., and J.B. Anderton. 1998. Human vs. lightning ignition of presettlement surface fires in coastal pine forests of the upper Great Lakes. American Midland Naturalist 140: 206–218. doi: 10.1674/0003-0031(1998)140[0206:HVLIOP]2.0.CO;2
Lopoukhine, N., and C.A. White. 1985. Fire management options in Canada’s national parks. Pages 59–68 in: D.E. Dubé, editor. Proceedings of the Intermountain Fire Council 1983 Fire Management Workshop. Canadian Forestry Service, Northern Forest Research Centre Information Report NOR-X-271. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
Macias Fauria, M., and E.A. Johnson. 2008. Climate and wildfires in the North American boreal forest. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 363: 2317–2329. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2007.2202
Marlon, J.R., P.J. Bartlein, C. Carcaillet, D.G. Gavin, S.P. Harrison, P.E. Higuera, F. Joos, M.J. Power, and I.C. Prentice. 2008. Climate and human influences on global biomass burning over the past two millennia. Nature Geoscience 1: 697–702. doi: 10.1038/ngeo313
Martell, D.L., and H. Sun. 2008. The impact of fire suppression, vegetation, and weather on the area burned by lightning-caused forest fires in Ontario. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 38: 1547–1563. doi: 10.1139/X07-210
Masters, A.M. 1990. Changes in forest fire frequency Kootenay National Park, Canadian Rockies. Canadian Journal of Botany 68: 1763–1767.
McMillan, A.D. 1995. Native peoples and cultures of Canada. Douglas and McIntyre, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
Nash, C.H., and E.A. Johnson. 1996. Synoptic climatology of lightning-caused forest fires in subalpine and boreal forests. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 26: 1859–1874. doi: 10.1139/x26-211
Nelson, J.G., and R.E. England. 1971. Some comments on the causes and effects of fire in the northern grasslands area of Canada and the nearby United States, ca. 1750–1900. Canadian Geographer 15: 295–306. doi: 10.1111/j.1541-0064.1971.tb00044.x
Ortuno, E.M., F. Duyon, and A. Munson. 2009. Modeling the distribution of Pinus strobus at the beginning of the 19th century in Quebec, Canada, using presettlement land survey records. Forest Studies Institute, University of Laval, Sillery, Province of Quebec, Canada.
Otway, S.G., E.W. Bork, K.R. Anderson, and M.E. Alexander. 2007. Predicted sustained smouldering combustion in trembling aspen duff in Elk Island National Park, Canada. International Journal of Wildland Fire 16: 690–701. doi: 10.1071/WF06033
Parisien, M.A., D.R. Junor, and V.G. Kafka. 2007. Comparing landscape-based decision rules for placement of fuel treatments in the boreal mixedwood of western Canada. International Journal of Wildland Fire 16: 664–672. doi: 10.1071/WF06060
Parks Canada. 1999. Prince Albert National Park Management Plan. Parks Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
Parks Canada. 2000. “Unimpaired for future generations?” tiProtecting ecological integrity with Canada’s national parks. Report of the Panel on the Ecological Integrity of Canada’s National Parks. 2 Volumes. Parks Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
Pellat, M.G., Z. Gedolof, M. McCoy, K. Bodtker, A. Cannon, S. Smith, D. Beckwith, R. Mathewes, and D. Smith. 2007. Fire history and ecology of Garry oak and associated ecosystems in British Columbia. Parks Canada, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
Pengelly, I.R., and D. Hamer. 2006. Grizzly bear use of pink hedysarum roots following shrubland fire in Banff National Park. Ursus 17: 124–131. doi: http://doi.org/10.2192/1537-6176(2006)17[124:GBUOPH]2.0.CO;2
Pierotti, R., and D. Wildcat. 2000. Traditional ecological knowledge: the third alternative (commentary). Ecological Applications 10: 1333–1340. doi: http://doi.org/10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010[1333:TEKTTA]2.0.CO;2
Pyne, S.J. 1995. World fire: the culture of fire on earth. Henry Holt, New York, New York, USA.
Pyne, S.J. 2004. Burning Banff. Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment 11: 221–248. doi: 10.1093/isle/11.2.221
Pyne, S.J. 2007. Awful splendour: a fire history of Canada. University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver, Canada.
Pyne, S.J., P.L. Andrews, and R.D. Laven. 1996. Introduction to wildland fire. John Wiley and Sons, New York, New York, USA.
Quenneville, R., and M. Thériault. 2001. La restauration des écosystèmes de pin blanc (Pinus strobus): un enjeu majeur pour le parc national de la Mauricie. Le Naturaliste Canadien 125: 39–42 [In French.]
Rogeau, M.P., I.R. Pengelly, and M.J. Fortin. 2004. Using a topography model to predict and monitor fire cycles in Banff National Park. Proceedings of the Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference 22: 55–69
Russell-Smith, J., D. Lucas, M. Gapindi, B. Gunbunuka, N. Kapirigi, G. Namingum, K. Lucas, P. Guilini, and G. Chaloupka. 1997. Aboriginal resource utilization and fire management practice in Western Arnhem Land, monsoonal Australia: notes for prehistory, lessons for the future. Human Ecology 25: 159–195. doi: 10.1023/A:1021970021670
Simard, A.J. 1973. Fire weather zones of Canada. Environment Canada Forestry Service, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
Skinner, W.R., M.D. Flannigan, B.J. Stocks, D.L. Martell, B.M. Wotton, J.B. Todd, J.A. Mason, K.A. Logan, and E.M. Bosch. 2002. A 500 hPa synoptic wildland fire climatology for large Canadian forest fires, 1959–1996. Theoretical and Applied Climatology 71: 157–169. doi: 10.1007/s007040200002
Stewart, O.C. 2002. Forgotten fires: native fires and the transient wilderness. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, USA.
Stocks, B.J., B.D. Lawson, M.E. Alexander, C.E. Van Wagner, R.S. McAlpine, T.J. Lynham, and D.E. Dubé. 1989. The Canadian Forest Fire Danger Rating System: an overview. Forestry Chronicle 65: 258–265.
Stocks, B.J., J.A. Mason, J.B. Todd, E.M. Bosch, B.M. Wotton, B.D. Amiro, M.D. Flannigan, K.G. Hirsch, K.A. Logan, D.L. Martell, and W.R. Skinner. 2003. Large forest fires in Canada, 1959–1997. Journal of Geophysical Research 107: 8149.
Stocks, B.J., M.E. Alexander, and R.A. Lanoville. 2004. Overview of the International Crown Fire Modelling Experiment (ICFME). Canadian Journal of Forest Research 34: 1543–1547. doi: 10.1139/x04-905
Talon, B., S. Payette, L. Filion, and A. Delwaide. 2005. Reconstruction of the long-term fire history of old-growth deciduous forest in southern Quebec, Canada, from charred wood in mineral soils. Quaternary Research 64: 36–43. doi: 10.1016/j.yqres.2005.03.003
Tande, G.F. 1979. Fire history and vegetation pattern of coniferous forests in Jasper National Park, Alberta. Canadian Journal of Botany 57: 1912–1931. doi: 10.1139/b79-241
Tardif, J. 2004. Fire history in the Duck Mountains Provincial Forest, western Manitoba. Sustainable Forest Management Network Project Report. University of Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
Ter-Mikaelian, M.T., S.J. Colombo, and J. Chen. 2009. Estimating natural forest fire return interval in northeastern Ontario, Canada. Forest Ecology and Management 258: 2037–2045. doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2009.07.056
Trottier, G.C. 1985. Evaluation of the prescribed burn study, Prince Albert National Park. Parks Research Group, Canadian Wildlife Service, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
Turner, N.J. 1999. “Time to burn:” traditional use of fire to enhance resource production by aboriginal peoples in British Columbia. Pages 185–218 in: R. Boyd, editor. Indians, fire and the land in the Pacific Northwest. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, USA.
Turner, N.J., I.J. Davidson-Hunt, M. O’Flaherty. 2003. Living on the edge: ecological and cultural edges as sources for diversity for social-ecological resilience. Human Ecology 31: 439–461. doi: 10.1023/A:1025023906459
Vale, T.R., editor. 2002. Fire, native peoples, and the natural landscape. Island Press, Washington, D.C., USA.
Valendik, E.N., G.A. Ivanova, Z.O. Chuluunbator, and J.G. Goldhammer. 1998. Fire in forest ecosystems in Mongolia. International Forest Fire News 19: 58–63.
Van Wagner, C.E. 1977. Conditions for the start and spread of crown fire. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 7: 23–34. doi: 10.1139/x77-004
Van Wagner, C.E. 1985. Does nature really care who starts the fire? Pages 127–128 in: J.E. Lotan, editor. Proceedings: Symposium and Workshop on Wilderness Fire. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-182. Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment station, Ogden, Utah, USA.
Van Wagner, C.E., M.A. Finney, and M. Heathcott. 2006. Historical fire cycles in the Canadian Rocky Mountains. Forest Science 52: 707–717.
van Wagtendonk, J.W., and J.A. Lutz. 2007. Fire regime attributes of wildland fires in Yosemite National Park, USA. Fire Ecology 3(2): 34–52. doi: https://doi.org/10.4996/fireecology.0302034
Walker, R.C., and A.P. Taylor. 2004. Achieving landscape fire management goals in the southern Canadian Rockies: the Mount Shanks Fire. Proceedings of the Tall Timber Fire Ecology Conference 22: 131–136.
Wein, R.W., and J.M. Moore. 1977. Fire history and rotations in the New Brunswick Acadian forest. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 7: 285–294. doi: 10.1139/x77-038
Weir, J.M.H., and E.A. Johnson. 1998. Effects of escaped settlement fires and logging on forest composition in the mixed-wood boreal forest. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 28: 459–467. doi: 10.1139/cjfr-28-3-459
Weir, J.M.H., E.A. Johnson, and K. Miyanishi. 2000. Fire frequency and the spatial age mosaic of the mixed-wood boreal forest in western Canada. Ecological Applications 10: 1162–1177. doi: 10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010[1162:FFATSA]2.0.CO;2
White, C.A. 1985. Wildland fires in Banff National Park 1880–1980. Occasional Paper 3. National Parks Branch, Parks Canada, Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
White, C.A., C.E. Olmsted, and C.E. Kay. 1998. Elk, aspen and fire in the Rocky Mountain national parks of North America. Wildlife Society Bulletin 26: 449–462.
White, C.A., E.G. Langemann, C.C. Gates, C.E. Kay, T. Shury, and T.E. Hurd. 2001. Plains bison restoration in the Canadian Rocky Mountains: ecological and management considerations. Pages 152–160 in: D. Harmon, editor. Crossing boundaries in park management. Proceedings of the 11th Conference on Research and Resource Management in Parks and on Public Lands. George Wright Society, 16–20 April 2001, Denver, Colorado, USA.
White, C.A., M.C. Feller, and P. Vera. 2002. New approaches for testing fire history hypotheses. Pages 398–411 in: S. Bondrup-Nielsen, N.W.P. Munro, G. Nelson, J.H.M. Willison, T.B. Herman, and P. Eagles, editors. Managing protected areas in a changing world. Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Science and Management of Protected Areas. Science and Management of Protected Areas Association, 14–19 May 2000, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.
White, C.A., I.R. Pengelly, D. Zell, and M.P. Rogeau. 2005. Restoring heterogenous fire patterns in Banff National Park, Alberta. Pages 255–266 in: Taylor, L., J. Zelnik, S. Cadwallader, and B. Hughes, editors. Mixed severity fire regimes: ecology and management, symposium proceedings. Washington State University Cooperative Extension Service and the Association for Fire Ecology, 17–19 November 2004, Spokane, Washington, USA.
White, C.A., and W. Fisher. 2007. Ecological restoration in the Canadian Rocky Mountains: developing and implementing the 1997 Banff National Park Management Plan. Pages 212–242 in: M. Price, editor. Mountain area research and management: integrated approaches. Earthscan, London, United Kingdom.
Wierzchowski, J., M. Heathcott, and M.D. Flannigan. 2002. Lightning and lightning fire, central cordillera, Canada. International Journal of Wildland Fire 11: 41–51. doi: 10.1071/WF01048
Williams, G.W. 2000. Reintroducing Indian-type fire: implications for land managers. Fire Management Today 60: 40–48.
Zhang, Q., and W. Chen. 2007. Fire cycle of the Canada’s boreal forest region and its potential response to global change. Journal of Forestry Research 18: 55–61. doi: 10.1007/s11676-007-0010-3