Brain-Dead Patients are not Cadavers: The Need to Revise the Definition of Death in Muslim Communities

Al-Allaf, M. (2003). Part two: Islamic divine law (Shari’ah). 9. Structuring the life of man by divine law. The five Ahkam. Mirror of realization: God is a percept, the universe is a concept (pp. 48–56), IIC_Classic Series: Islamic Information Center, Washington DC, USA. http://www.islamicinformationcenter.org/ .

Albar, M. A. (1996). Islamic ethics of organ transplantation and brain death. Saudi Journal of Kidney Diseases and Transplantation, 7(2), 109–114. Retrieved from http://www.sjkdt.org/text.asp?1996/7/2/109/39509 .

Albar, M. (2012). Organ transplantation: A Sunni Islamic perspective. Saudi Journal of Kidney Diseases and Transplantation, 23(4), 817–822.

Alghanim, S. A. (2010). Knowledge and attitudes toward organ donation: A community-based study comparing rural and urban populations. Saudi Journal of Kidney Diseases and Transplantation, 21(1), 23–30.

AlKhawari, F. S., Stimson, G. V., & Warrens, A. N. (2005). Attitudes toward transplantation in U.K. Muslim Indo-Asians in West London. American Journal of Transplantation, 5(6), 1326–1331.

Al-Mousawi, M., Hamed, T., & Al-Matouk, H. (1997). Views of Muslim scholars on organ donation and brain death. Transplantation Proceedings, 29(8), 3217.

Al-Sayyari, A. A., & Shaheen, F. A. (2011). End stage chronic kidney disease in Saudi Arabia. A rapidly changing scene. Saudi Medical Journal, 32(4), 339–346.

Alsultan, M. A. (2011). Utilization of intensive care units’ beds occupied by brain-dead patients. Saudi Journal of Kidney Diseases and Transplantation, 22(3), 444–447.

Aslam, M., & Hameed, W. (2008). UK Muslim graduates need more information about organ donation and transplant. Transplant International, 21(1), 92–93.

Athar, S. (2011). Principles of biomedical ethics. Journal of the Islamic Medical Association of North America (IMANA), 43(3), 139–143. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.5915/43-3-8476 .

Auyong, D. B., Klein, S. M., Gan, T. J., Roche, A. M., Olson, D., & Habib, A. S. (2010). Processed electroencephalogram during donation after cardiac death. Anesthesia and Analgesia, 110(5), 1428–1432.

Badawi, G. (2011). Muslim attitudes towards end-of-life decisions. Journal of the Islamic Medical Association of North America (IMANA), 43(3), 134–139. Retrieved from http://jima.imana.org/article/view/8602 .

Bedir, A., & Aksoy, S. (2011). Brain death revisited: It is not ‘complete death’ according to Islamic sources. Journal of Medical Ethics, 37(5), 290–294.

Beecher, H., & Ad Hoc Committee of the Harvard Medical School to Examine the Definition of Brain-death. (1968). A definition of irreversible coma. Special communication: Report of the Ad Hoc Committee of the Harvard Medical School to Examine the Definition of Brain Death. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 205, 337–340.

Bellomo, R., & Zamperetti N. (2007). Defining the vital condition for organ donation. Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in Medicine, 2(1), 27. Retrieved from http://www.peh-med.com/content/2/1/27 .

Bernat, J. L. (2006). Are organ donors after cardiac death really dead? The Journal of Clinical Ethics, 17(2), 122–132.

Bernat, J. L. (2010). How the distinction between “irreversible” and “permanent” illuminates circulatory–respiratory death determination. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, 35(3), 242–255.

Bernat, J. L., Capron, A. M., Bleck, T. P., Blosser, S., Bratton, S. L., Childress, J. F., et al. (2010). The circulatory-respiratory determination of death in organ donation. Critical Care Medicine, 38(3), 963–970.

Canver, C. C., Al Buraiki, J. A., Saad, E., Yousafzai, S. M., Al Ahmadi, M. D., & Al Sanei, A. M. (2011). A high-volume heart transplantation center in an Islamic country. Asian Cardiovascular & Thoracic Annals, 19(3–4), 244–248.

Choo, V. (1995). UK Shariah Council approves organ transplants. The Lancet, 346(8970), 303.

Cochrane, T., & Bianchi, M. T. (2011). “Take my organs, please”: A section of my living will. The American Journal of Bioethics, 11(8), 56–58.

Collins, M. (2010). Reevaluating the dead donor rule. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, 35(2), 154–179.

Faraj, W., Fakih, H., Mukherji, D., & Khalife, M. (2010). Organ donation after cardiac death in the middle east. Transplantation Proceedings, 42(3), 713–715.

Fitzgerald, R. D., Hieber, C., Schweitzer, E., Luo, A., Oczenski, W., & Lackner, F. X. (2003). Intraoperative catecholamine release in brain-dead organ donors is not suppressed by administration of fentanyl. European Journal of Anaesthesiology, 20(12), 952–956.

Glannon, W. (2011). Donation, death, and harm. The American Journal of Bioethics, 11(8), 48–49.

Haque, O. S. (2008). Brain death and its entanglements. A redefinition of personhood for Islamic ethics. Journal of Religious Ethics, 36(1), 13–36.

Harrington, M. M. (2009). The thin flat line: Redefining who is legally dead in organ donation after cardiac death. Issues in Law and Medicine, 25(2), 95–143.

Iltis, A. S., & Cherry, M. J. (2010). Death revisited: Rethinking death and the dead donor rule. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, 35(3), 223–241.

Jardine, A. G., Gaston, R. S., Fellstrom, B. C., & Holdaas, H. (2011). Prevention of cardiovascular disease in adult recipients of kidney transplants. The Lancet, 378(9800), 1419–1427.

Joffe, A. (2010). Are recent defences of the brain death concept adequate? Bioethics, 24(2), 47–53.

Joffe, A. R., Anton, N., & Blackwood, J. (2010a). Brain death and the cervical spinal cord: A confounding factor for the clinical examination. Spinal Cord, 48(1), 2–9.

Joffe, A., Anton, N. R., & Duff, J. P. (2010b). The Apnea test: Rationale, confounders, and criticism. Journal of Child Neurology, 25(11), 1435–1443.

Joffe, A., Anton, N., Duff, J., & deCaen, A. (2012). A survey of American neurologists about brain death: understanding of the conceptual basis and diagnostic tests for brain death. Annals of Intensive Care, 2(1), 4. Retrieved from http://www.annalsofintensivecare.com/content/2/1/4 .

Joffe, A., Carcillo, J., Anton, N., deCaen, A., Han, Y., Bell, M., et al. (2011). Donation after cardiocirculatory death: A call for a moratorium pending full public disclosure and fully informed consent. Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in Medicine, 6(1), 17. Retrieved from http://www.peh-med.com/content/6/1/17 .

Karakatsanis, K. G. (2008). Brain death: Should it be reconsidered? Spinal Cord, 46(6), 396–401.

Kazemeyni, S. M., Sorosh, A. R., & Afzali, A. (2009). Organ yield from deceased donors: Initial experience of an organ procurement unit in Iran. Archives of Iranian Medicine, 12(2), 170–172.

Khalid, I., Hamad, W. J., Khalid, T. J., Kadri, M. & Qushmaq, I. (2012). End-of-life care in muslim brain dead patients: A 10-year experience. American Journal of Hospice and Palliative Medicine. doi: 10.1177/1049909112452625 .

Khalid, U., & Khalil, S. (2011). Ethical dilemma of recovering organs before donor death. Experimental and Clinical Transplantation, 9(4), 284–285.

Khushf, G. (2010). A matter of respect: A defense of the dead donor rule and of a “whole-brain” criterion for determination of death. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, 35(3), 330–364.

Kunin, J. (2004). Brain death: Revisiting the rabbinic opinions in light of current medical knowledge. Tradition, 38(4), 48–62.

Lee, P., & Grisez, G. (2012). Total brain death: A reply to Alan Shewmon. Bioethics, 26(5), 275–284.

Lustbader, D., O’Hara, D., Wijdicks, E. F. M., MacLean, L., Tajik, W., Ying, A., et al. (2011). Second brain death examination may negatively affect organ donation. Neurology, 76(2), 119–124.

Mandegar, M. H., Bagheri, J., Chitsaz, S., Jebelli, M., Javidi, D., Sarzaeem, M. R., et al. (2009). Heart transplantation in Iran; a comprehensive single-center review of 15-year performance. Archives of Iranian Medicine, 12(2), 111–115.

Marik, P. E., & Varon, J. (2010). Prolonged and profound therapeutic hypothermia for the treatment of “brain death” after a suicidal intoxication. Challenging conventional wisdoms. The American Journal of Emergency Medicine, 28(2), 258.e1–258.e4.

Marquis, D. (2010). Are DCD donors dead? Hastings Cent Report, 40(3), 24–31.

Masri, M. A., Haberal, M. A., Shaheen, F. A., Stephan, A., Ghods, A. J., Al-Rohani, M., et al. (2004). Middle East Society for Organ Transplantation (MESOT) transplant registry. Experimental and Clinical Transplantation, 2(2), 217–220.

Moosa, E. (1993). Brain death and organ transplantation—an Islamic opinion. South African Medical Journal, 83(6), 385–386.

Morales, N. (2008). ‘Dead’ man recovering after ATV accident. Doctors said he was dead, and a transplant team was ready to take his organs—until a young man came back to life. Dateline NBC News. Retrieved 23 August 2012, from http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/23768436/ns/dateline_nbc-newsmakers/t/dead-man-recovering-after-atv-accident/ .

Murray, J. E. (2001). Surgery of the soul: Reflections on a curious career. Canton, MA: Science History Publications.

Nair-Collins, M. (2010). Death, brain death, and the limits of science: Why the whole-brain concept of death is a flawed public policy. The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 38(3), 667–683.

Najafizadeh, K., Abbasi, A., Ghorbani, F., Radpei, B., Kashani, B. S., Ahmadi, Z. H., et al. (2009). Organ retrieval from brain-dead patients by a single organ procurement center in Iran. Transplantation Proceedings, 41(7), 2723–2725.

Najafizadeh, K., Ghobadi, O., Ghorbani, F., Shafaghi, S., Radpei, B., Shojaei, S. P., et al. (2012). Transfer protocol of brain-dead patients to specialized donor management unit. Transplantation, 94(1), e6–e8.

Nankivell, B. J., & Kuypers, D. R. J. (2011). Diagnosis and prevention of chronic kidney allograft loss. The Lancet, 378(9800), 1428–1437.

National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws (1981). The Uniform Determination of Death Act 1981. Retrieved August 23, 2012, from https://www.law.upenn.edu/library/archives/ulc/fnact99/1980s/udda80.htm .

Ornstein, C., & Weber, T. (2007). Potential organ donor was wrongly declared brain-dead. The error raises concerns about the medical care of those who have promised their organs for transplants. The Los Angeles Times. April 12, 2007; Main News; Part A; Metro Desk; A1. Los Angeles, CA. Retrieved August 23, 2012, from http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/1253166441.html?dids=1253166441:1253166441&FMT=ABS .

Padela, A. I. (2007). Islamic medical ethics: A primer. Bioethics, 21(3), 169–178.

Padela, A. I., Arozullah, A., & Moosa, E. (2011a). Brain death in Islamic ethico-legal deliberation: Challenges for applied Islamic bioethics. Bioethics. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8519.2011.01935.x .

Padela, A. I., Shanawani, H., & Arozullah, A. (2011b). Medical experts & Islamic scholars deliberating over brain death: Gaps in the applied Islamic bioethics discourse. The Muslim World, 101(1), 53–72.

Pope John Paul II (1994). Letter to families from Pope John Paul II. Retrieved August 23, 2012, from http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/letters/documents/hf_jp-ii_let_02021994_families_en.html .

Potts, M., Byrne, P. A., & Evans, D. W. (2010). Infant heart transplantation after cardiac death: Ethical and legal problems. Journal of Clinical Ethics, 21(3), 224–228.

Powner, D. J. (2009). Certification of brain death: Take care. The Lancet, 373(9675), 1587–1589.

Rady, M. Y., & Verheijde, J. L. (2010). General anesthesia for surgical procurement in non-heart-beating organ donation: Why we should care. Anesthesia and Analgesia, 111(6), 1562.

Rady, M. Y., & Verheijde, J. L. (2011). Brain death is not ‘complete death’ in Islam: A global call for revising the legal definition of death in Islam. Retrieved August 23, 2012, from http://jme.bmj.com/content/37/5/290.abstract/reply#medethics_el_3655 .

Rady, M. Y., Verheijde, J. L., & Ali, M. S. (2009). Islam and end-of-life practices in organ donation for transplantation: New questions and serious sociocultural consequences. HealthCare Ethics Committee Forum, 21(2), 175–205.

Rady, M. Y., Verheijde, J. L., & McGregor, J. L. (2010). Scientific, legal, and ethical challenges of end-of-life organ procurement in emergency medicine. Resuscitation, 81(9), 1069–1078.

Randhawa, G. (2012). Death and organ donation: Meeting the needs of multiethnic and multifaith populations. British Journal of Anaesthesia, 108(suppl 1), i88–i91.

Randhawa, G., Brocklehurst, A., Pateman, R., Kinsella, S., & Parry, V. (2010) Religion and organ donation: The views of UK faith leaders. Journal of Religion and Health. doi: 10.1007/s10943-010-9374-3 .

Rasulo, F. A., Volonté, F., Bertuetti, R., & Latronico, N. (2010). Dying brain. British Journal of Anaesthesia, 105(6), 870–871.

Raza, M., & Hedayat, K. M. (2004). Some sociocultural aspects of cadaver organ donation: Recent rulings from Iran. Transplantation Proceedings, 36(10), 2888–2890.

Roberts, D., MacCulloch, K., Versnick, E., & Hall, R. (2010). Should ancillary brain blood flow analyses play a larger role in the neurological determination of death? Canadian Journal of Anesthesia, 57(10), 927–935.

Rodriguez-Arias, D., Smith, M. J., & Lazar, N. M. (2011). Donation After Circulatory Death: Burying the Dead Donor Rule. The American Journal of Bioethics, 11(8), 36–43.

Sachedina, A. (2000). Brain death in Islamic jurisprudence. Retrieved August 23, 2012, from http://people.virginia.edu/~aas/article/article6.htm .

Saposnik, G., Maurino, J., Saizar, R., & Bueri, J. A. (2005). Spontaneous and reflex movements in 107 patients with brain death. The American Journal of Medicine, 118(3), 311–314.

Sarhill, N., LeGrand, S., Islambouli, R., Davis, M. P., & Walsh, D. (2001). The terminally ill Muslim: Death and dying from the Muslim perspective. American Journal of Hospice and Palliative Medicine, 18(4), 251–255.

Saudi Center for Organ Transplantation. (2010). Deceased heart beating donor and organ transplantation in Saudi Arabia. Saudi Journal of Kidney Diseases and Transplantation, 21(2), 379–383.

Schultz, M., Baddarni, K., & Bar-Sela, G. (2012). Reflections on palliative care from the Jewish and Islamic tradition. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. doi: 10.1155/2012/693092 . Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2012/693092 .

Sharif, A., Jawad, H., Nightingale, P., Hodson, J., Lipkin, G., Cockwell, P., et al. (2011). A quantitative survey of western Muslim attitudes to solid organ donation. Transplantation, 92(10), 1108–1114.

Shewmon, D. A. (1998). Chronic “brain death”: Meta-analysis and conceptual consequences. Neurology, 51(6), 1538–1545.

Shewmon, D. A. (2001). The brain and somatic integration: Insights into the standard biological rationale for equating “brain death” with death. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, 26(5), 457–478.

Shewmon, D. A. (2009). Brain death: Can it be resuscitated? Issues in Law and Medicine, 25(1), 3–14.

Shewmon, D. A. (2010). Constructing the death elephant: A synthetic paradigm shift for the definition, criteria, and tests for death. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, 35(3), 256–298.

Shewmon, D. A. (2012). Brain death or brain dying? Journal of Child Neurology, 27(1), 4–6.

Sullivan, R., Hodgman, M. J., Kao, L., & Tormoehlen, L. M. (2012). Baclofen overdose mimicking brain death. Clinical Toxicology, 50(2), 141–144.

Tayeb, M. A., Al-Zamel, E., Fareed, M. M., & Abouellail, H. A. (2010). A “good death”: Perspectives of Muslim patients and health care providers. Annals of Saudi Medicine, 30(3), 215–221.

The Free Dictionary by Farlex (2012). The definition of utilitarian based on WordNet 3.0, Farlex clipart collection. © 2003-2012 Princeton University, Farlex Inc. Retrieved 23 August, 2012, from http://www.thefreedictionary.com/utilitarian .

The Holy Quran (2012). Mohsin Khan-English Translation of the Holy Quran. Retrieved August 23, 2012, from http://www.quranexplorer.com/Quran/ .

The Lancet. (2011). Religion, organ transplantation, and the definition of death. The Lancet, 377(9762), 271.

The President’s Council on Bioethics (2008). Controversies in the determination of death. A White Paper of the President’s Council on Bioethics. Retrieved August 23, 2012, from http://bioethics.georgetown.edu/pcbe/reports/death/ .

Thomas, A. G. (2012). Continuing the definition of death debate: The report of the president’s council on bioethics on controversies in the determination of death. Bioethics, 26(2), 101–107.

Tibballs, J. (2008). The non-compliance of clinical guidelines for organ donation with Australian statute law. Journal of Law and Medicine, 16(2), 335–355.

Tonti-Filippini, N. (2012). Religious and secular death: A parting of the ways. Bioethics, 26(8), 410–421.

Varelas, P., Rehman, M., Abdelhak, T., Patel, A., Rai, V., Barber, A., et al. (2011). Single brain death examination is equivalent to dual brain death examinations. Neurocritical Care, 15(3), 547–553.

Veatch, R. M. (2010). Transplanting hearts after death measured by cardiac criteria: The challenge to the dead donor rule. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, 35(3), 313–329.

Verheijde, J. L., & Potts, M. (2010). Commentary on the concept of brain death within the catholic bioethical framework. Christian Bioethics, 16(3), 246–256.

Verheijde, J. L., & Rady, M. Y. (2011). Justifying physician-assisted death in organ donation. American Journal of Bioethics, 11(8), 52–54.

Verheijde, J. L., Rady, M. Y., & McGregor, J. L. (2009). Brain death, states of impaired consciousness, and physician-assisted death for end-of-life organ donation and transplantation. Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy, 12(4), 409–421.

Webb, A. C., & Samuels, O. B. (2011). Reversible brain death after cardiopulmonary arrest and induced hypothermia. Critical Care Medicine, 39(6), 1538–1542.

Wijdicks, E. F. M. (2003). The neurologist and Harvard criteria for brain death. Neurology, 61(7), 970–976.

Wijdicks, E. F. (2010). The case against confirmatory tests for determining brain death in adults. Neurology, 75(1), 77–83.

Wijdicks, E. F., & Pfeifer, E. A. (2008). Neuropathology of brain death in the modern transplant era. Neurology, 70(15), 1234–1237.

Wijdicks, E. F., Varelas, P. N., Gronseth, G. S., & Greer, D. M. (2010). Evidence-based guideline update: Determining brain death in adults: Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology, 74(23), 1911–1918.

Yilmaz, T. U. (2011). Importance of education in organ donation. Experimental and Clinical Transplantation, 9(6), 370–375.

Young, P. J., & Matta, B. F. (2000). Anaesthesia for organ donation in the brainstem dead—why bother? Anaesthesia, 55(2), 105–106.

Zamperetti, N., & Bellomo, R. (2009). Total brain failure: A new contribution by the President’s Council on Bioethics to the definition of death according to the neurological standard. Intensive Care Medicine, 35(7), 1305–1307.

Zamperetti, N., Bellomo, R., Defanti, C. A., & Latronico, N. (2004). Irreversible apnoeic coma 35 years later. Towards a more rigorous definition of brain death? Intensive Care Medicine, 30(9), 1715–1722.

Zamperetti, N., Bellomo, R., & Ronco, C. (2003). Defining death in non-heart beating organ donors. Journal of Medical Ethics, 29, 182–185.

Zamperetti, N., Bellomo, R., & Ronco, C. (2009). Cardiac death or circulatory arrest? Facts and values in organ retrieval after diagnosis of death by cardio-circulatory criteria. Intensive Care Medicine, 35(10), 1673–1677.

Zurani, N., Robson, H., Razack, A. H., & Dublin, N. (2010). Organ transplants: Ethical, social, and religious issues in a multicultural society. Asia Pacific Journal of Public Health, 22(3), 271–278.