Beliefs on Sexual Violence in the Context of System Justification Theory: The Role of Hostile Sexism and Beliefs in Biological Origins of Gender Differences

Social Justice Research - Tập 34 - Trang 235-254 - 2021
Agnieszka E. Łyś1, Anna Studzińska2, Kamilla Bargiel-Matusiewicz1
1University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
2University of Economics and Human Sciences in Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland

Tóm tắt

Estimates suggest that around 20% of women may have experienced rape. Various misconceptions about rape (i.e., rape myths) are closely related to victim blaming. In our studies we tested the link between system justification, beliefs in biological origins of gender differences, ambivalent sexism and beliefs concerning sexual violence. Study 1 was conducted among 433 Polish students. The sequential mediation analysis suggests that system justification predicts the level of rape myth acceptance through beliefs in biological origins of gender differences and then hostile (but not benevolent) sexism. In Study 2, conducted among 197 Polish students, we tested the relationship between beliefs in biological origins of gender differences and beliefs concerning sexual violence using experimental design. Contrary to our expectations, students who read the text about social origins of gender differences perceived the survivor of a hypothetical acquaintance rape as less credible, and proposed a lower sentence for a stranger rape perpetrator, compared to participants who read about biological origins of gender differences. We suspect that this is due to experiencing reactance when confronted with social explanations of gender differences. We discuss implications for research and policy.

Tài liệu tham khảo

Abbey, A., Jacques-Tiura, A. J., & LeBreton, J. M. (2011). Risk factors for sexual aggression in young men: An expansion of the confluence model. Aggressive Behavior, 37(5), 450–464. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20399 Angelone, D., Cantor, N., Marcantonio, T., & Joppa, M. (2020). Does sexism mediate the gender and rape myth acceptance relationship? Violence against Women. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801220913632 Barnett, M. D., & Hilz, E. N. (2017). The psychology of the politics of rape: Political ideology, moral foundations, and attitudes toward rape. Violence against Women, 24(5), 545–564. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801217708887 Bastian, B., & Haslam, N. (2006). Psychological essentialism and stereotype endorsement. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42(2), 228–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2005.03.003 Bitsch, A., & Klemetsen, M. E. (2017). The legal grading of sexual citizenship: Sentencing practices in Norwegian rape cases. Gender, Place & Culture, 24(2), 174–188. https://doi.org/10.1080/0966369x.2017.1298572 Bosson, J., Parrott, D., Swan, S., Kuchynka, S., & Schramm, A. (2015). A dangerous boomerang: Injunctive norms, hostile sexist attitudes, and male-to-female sexual aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 41, 580–593. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21597 Bradley, M. M., & Lang, P. J. (1994). Measuring emotion: The self-assessment manikin and the semantic differential. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 25(1), 49–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7916(94)90063-9 Brehm, J. W., & Cole, A. H. (1966). Effect of a favor which reduces freedom. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3(4), 420–426. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0023034 Brescoll, V., & LaFrance, M. (2004). The correlates and consequences of newspaper reports of research on sex differences. Psychological Science, 15, 515–520. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00712.x Brescoll, V. L., Uhlmann, E. L., & Newman, G. E. (2013). The effects of system-justifying motives on endorsement of essentialist explanations for gender differences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 105(6), 891–908. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034701 Broussard, K., & Warner, R. (2018). Gender nonconformity is perceived differently for cisgender and transgender targets. Sex Roles, 80(7–8), 409–428. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-018-0947-z Burt, M. R. (1980). Cultural myths and supports for rape. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38(2), 217–230. Cardiff, C. F., & Klein, D. B. (2005). Faculty partisan affiliations in all disciplines: A voter-registration study. Critical Review: A Journal of Politics and Society, 17(3–4), 237–255. https://doi.org/10.1080/08913810508443639 Chapleau, K. M., & Oswald, D. L. (2013). Status, threat, and stereotypes: Understanding the function of RMA. Social Justice Research, 26(1), 18–41. Chapleau, K. M., & Oswald, D. L. (2014). A system justification view of sexual violence: Legitimizing gender inequality and reduced moral outrage are connected to greater rape myth acceptance. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 15(2), 204–218. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2014.867573 Chapleau, K. M., Oswald, D. L., & Russell, B. L. (2007). How ambivalent sexism toward women and men support rape myth acceptance. Sex Roles, 57(1–2), 131–136. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9196-2 Ching, B. H. H., & Xu, J. T. (2018). The effects of gender neuroessentialism on transprejudice: An experimental study. Sex Roles, 78, 228–241. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0786-3 Coleman, J., & Hong, Y. Y. (2008). Beyond nature and nurture: The influence of lay gender theories on self-stereotyping. Self and Identity, 7, 34–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860600980185 Criminal Code [Poland]. (1997). Article 197. Retrieved from: https://supertrans2014.files.wordpress.com/2014/06/the-criminal-code.pdf. Debowska, A., Boduszek, D., Dhingra, K., Kola, S., & Meller-Prunska, A. (2015). The role of psychopathy and exposure to violence in rape myth acceptance. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30(15), 2751–2770. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260514553635 Egan, R., & Wilson, J. C. (2012). Rape victims’ attitudes to rape myth acceptance. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 19(3), 345–357. https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2011.585128 European Commission. (2016). Special Eurobarometer 449—November 2016 “Gender-based violence”. https://doi.org/10.2838/009088. Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A.-G., & Buchner, A. (2007). G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39, 175–191. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193146 Gerger, H., Kley, H., Bohner, G., & Siebler, F. (2007). The acceptance of modern myths about sexual aggression scale: Development and validation in German and English. Aggressive Behavior, 33(5), 422–440. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20195 Giovannelli, T. S., & Jackson, L. (2013). Sexual violence perceptions among Christian college students. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 16(3), 254–272. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2012.657618 Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (1996). The ambivalent sexism inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 491–512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.491 Goldenberg, L., & Forgas, J. (2012). Can happy mood reduce the just world bias? Affective influences on blaming the victim. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(1), 239–243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2011.07.007 Hantzi, A., Lampridis, E., Tsantila, K., & Bohner, G. (2015). Validation of the Greek acceptance of modern myths about sexual aggression (AMMSA) scale: Examining its relationships with sexist and conservative political beliefs. International Journal of Conflict and Violence, 9(1), 122–133. https://doi.org/10.4119/UNIBI/ijcv.498 Haslam, N., Rothschild, L., & Ernst, D. (2000). Essentialist beliefs about social categories. British Journal of Social Psychology, 39(1), 113–127. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466600164363 Haslam, N., & Whelan, J. (2008). Human natures: Psychological essentialism in thinking about differences between people. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2(3), 1297–1312. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2008.00112.x Hayes, A. F. (2013). Model templates for PROCESS for SPSS and SAS. Retrieved from: www.afhayes.com. Hayes, A. F., & Cai, L. (2007). Using heteroskedasticity-consistent standard error estimators in OLS regression: An introduction and software implementation. Behavior Research Methods, 39(4), 709–722. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03192961 Heath, N. M., Lynch, S. M., Fritch, A. M., & Wong, M. M. (2013). RMA impacts the reporting of rape to the police: A study of incarcerated women. Violence against Women, 19(9), 1065–1078. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801213501841 Held, V. (2006). Ethics of Care. Oxford University Press. Hudson, S. M., Wales, D. S., Bakker, L., & Ward, T. (2002). Dynamic risk factors: The kia marama evaluation. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 14, 103–119. https://doi.org/10.1177/107906320201400203 Imbir, K. K. (2016). From heart to mind and back again. A duality of emotion overview on emotion-cognition interactions. New Ideas in Psychology, 43, 39–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.newideapsych.2016.04.001 Jewkes, R., Sikweyiya, Y., Morrell, R., & Dunkle, K. (2011). Gender inequitable masculinity and sexual entitlement in rape perpetration South Africa: Findings of struck a cross-sectional study. PLoS ONE, 6(12), e29590. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0029590 Jost, J. T., & Banaji, M. R. (1994). The role of stereotyping in system justification and the production of false consciousness. British Journal of Social Psychology, 33, 1–27. Kay, A. C., & Jost, J. T. (2003). Complementary justice: Effects of “poor but happy” and “poor but honest” stereotype exemplars on system justification and implicit activation of the justice motive. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(5), 823–837. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.5.823 Keller, J. (2005). In genes we trust: The biological component of psychological essentialism and its relationship to mechanisms of motivated social cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(4), 686–702. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.88.4.686 Kittay, E. F. (1999). Love’s labor: Essays on women. equality and dependency. Routledge. Klebaniuk, J. (2010). Orientacja na dominację społeczną i usprawiedliwianie systemu w kontekście nierówności międzypaństwowych [Social dominance orientation and system justification in the context of between-state inequalities]. Psychologia Społeczna, 5(13), 42–56. Koss, M. P., & Dinero, T. E. (1988). Predictors of sexual aggression among a national sample of male college students. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 528, 133–147. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1988.tb50856.x Krahé, B., Temkin, J., Bieneck, S., & Berger, A. (2008). Prospective lawyers’ rape stereotypes and schematic decision making about rape cases. Psychology, Crime & Law, 14(5), 461–479. https://doi.org/10.1080/10683160801932380 Kray, L. J., Howland, L., Russell, A. G., & Jackman, L. M. (2017). The effects of implicit gender role theories on gender system justification: Fixed beliefs strengthen masculinity to preserve the status quo. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 112(1), 98–115. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000124 Łyś, A. E., Bargiel-Matusiewicz, K., Krasuski, T., & Studzińska, A. (2021). Psychometric properties of the Polish updated Illinois rape myth acceptance scale. Current Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-01249-3 Łyś, A. E., Bargiel-Matusiewicz, K., & Studzińska, A. (2019). Jawne i utajone postawy wobec przemocy seksualnej wśród studentów prawa- podatność na interwencje w wyniku zaplanowanych oddziaływań psychologicznych [Explicit and implicit attitudes towards sexual violence among law students—susceptibility to change based on planned psychological interventions]. Presentation at the XVIth Meeting of the Polish Society for Social Psychology at Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań. Łyś, A., Bargiel-Matusiewicz, K., Studzińska, A., & Folkierska-Żukowska, M. (2020). Parametry psychometryczne polskiej wersji Inwentarza Ambiwalencji wobec Mężczyzn na przykładzie badania seksizmu wobec mężczyzn wśród polskich studentów [Psychometric properties of the Polish version of the Ambivalence towards Men Inventory on the example of a study of sexism toward men among Polish students]. In M. Obrycka, G. Piekarski, & M. A. Sałapata (Eds.), Edukacja równościowa: Tworzenie przestrzeni i warunków dla innego [Equality education: Creating the space and condition for the different]. Oficyna Wydawnicza Impuls: Warszawa. Malamuth, N. M., Linz, D., Heavey, C. L., Barnes, G., & Acker, M. (1995). Using the confluence model of sexual aggression to predict men’s conflict with women: A 10-year follow-up study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(2), 353–369. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.2.353 McMahon, S., & Farmer, G. L. (2011). An updated measure for assessing subtle rape myths. Social Work Research, 35(2), 71–81. https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/35.2.71 Medin, D., & Ortony, A. (1989). Psychological essentialism. In S. Vosniadou & A. Ortony (Eds.), Similarity and analogical reasoning (pp. 179–195). Cambridge University Press. Mikołajczak, M., & Pietrzak, J. (2014). Ambivalent sexism and religion: Connected through values. Sex Roles, 70(9–10), 387–399. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-014-0379-3 Morton, T. A., Postmes, T., Haslam, S. A., & Hornsey, M. J. (2009). Theorizing gender in the face of social change: Is there anything essential about essentialism? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(3), 653–664. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012966 Pacilli, M. G., Pagliaro, S., Taurino, A., Spaccatini, F., Giovannelli, I., Massaro, G., & Caporale, F. (2017). Impact of gender essentialism on heterosexuals’ negative attitudes toward same-sex parenting. Psicologia Sociale, 12(3), 317–334. https://doi.org/10.1482/87888 Page, A. D. (2010). True colors: Police officers and rape myth acceptance. Feminist Criminology, 5(4), 315–334. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557085110384108 Papp, L. J., & Erchull, M. J. (2017). Objectification and system justification Impact rape avoidance behaviors. Sex Roles, 76, 110–120. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0660-8 Persson, S., Dhingra, K., & Grogan, S. (2018). Attributions of victim blame in stranger and acquaintance rape: A quantitative study. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 27(13–14), 2640–2649. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocn.14351 Rangel, U., & Keller, J. (2011). Essentialism goes social: Belief in social determinism as a component of psychological essentialism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(6), 1056–1078. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022401 Rebeiz, M. J., & Harb, Ch. (2010). Perceptions of rape and attitudes toward women in a sample of Lebanese students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25(4), 735–752. Sakallı-Uğurlu, N., Yalçın, Z. S., & Glick, P. (2007). Ambivalent sexism, belief in a just world, and empathy as predictors of Turkish students’ attitudes toward rape victims. Sex Roles, 57, 889–895. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9313-2 Skewes, L., Fine, C., & Haslam, N. (2018). Beyond Mars and Venus: The role of gender essentialism in support for gender inequality and backlash. PLoS ONE, 13(7), e0200921. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0200921 Smith, S. G., Chen, J., Basile, K. C., Gilbert, L. K., Merrick, M. T., Patel, N., Walling, M., & Jain, A. (2017). The national intimate partner and sexual violence survey (NISVS): 2010–2012 State report. Atlanta: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Studzińska, A., & Wojciszke, B. (2014). Przekonania o genezie różnic płci a legitymizacja nierówności kobiet i mężczyzn [Beliefs about the origin of gender differences and legitimization of inequalities between men and women]. Psychologia Społeczna [social Psychological Bulletin], 4(31), 396–408. Swigger, N., & Meyer, M. (2018). Gender essentialism and responses to candidates’ messages. Political Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12556 Wilton, L. S., Bell, A. N., Carpinella, C. M., Young, D. M., Meyers, C., & Clapham, R. (2018). Lay theories of gender influence, support for women and transgender people’s legal rights. Social Psychological and Personality Science. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550618803608 Yzerbyt, V., Rocher, S., & Schadron, G. (1997). Stereotypes as explanations: A subjective essentialistic view of group perception. In R. Spears, P. J. Oakes, N. Ellemers, & S. A. Haslam (Eds.), The social psychology of stereotyping and group life (pp. 20–50). Blackwell.