Bad is Stronger than Good

Review of General Psychology - Tập 5 Số 4 - Trang 323-370 - 2001
Roy F. Baumeister1,2,3,4,5,6, Ellen Bratslavsky1,2,3,4,5,6, Catrin Finkenauer1,2,3,7,4,6, Kathleen D. Vohs8,7
1Case Western Reserve University
2Department of Psychol-ogy, Ohio State University.
3Department of Psychology, Case Western Reserve University; Catrin Finkenauer, Department of Psychology,
4Free University of Amsterdam
5Free University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
6ment of Psychology, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio 44106-7123.
7Department of Psychology, Free University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
8Department of Psychology, Case Western Reserve University,

Tóm tắt

The greater power of bad events over good ones is found in everyday events, major life events (e.g., trauma), close relationship outcomes, social network patterns, interpersonal interactions, and learning processes. Bad emotions, bad parents, and bad feedback have more impact than good ones, and bad information is processed more thoroughly than good. The self is more motivated to avoid bad self-definitions than to pursue good ones. Bad impressions and bad stereotypes are quicker to form and more resistant to disconfirmation than good ones. Various explanations such as diagnosticity and salience help explain some findings, but the greater power of bad events is still found when such variables are controlled. Hardly any exceptions (indicating greater power of good) can be found. Taken together, these findings suggest that bad is stronger than good, as a general principle across a broad range of psychological phenomena.

Từ khóa


Tài liệu tham khảo

10.1207/s15324834basp0602_2

10.1002/ejsp.2420150306

10.1177/0265407593101001

10.2466/pms.1977.45.3.703

10.1111/j.1468-2958.2000.tb00756.x

10.1177/0146167292185014

10.1037/h0021966

Aries P., 1981, The hour of our death

10.1097/00006842-198701000-00001

10.1016/0022-1031(65)90043-0

10.1037/h0046912

10.1007/978-1-4684-3782-9_2

10.1016/0023-9690(90)90025-J

10.1007/978-1-4612-2624-6_6

10.1146/annurev.ps.45.020194.001501

BartholowB. D., FabianiM., GrattonG. & BettencourtB. A. (1999). Gazing into the cognitive toolbox: Expectancy violations and event-related brain potentials. Manuscript submitted for publication.

Baumeister R. F., 1991, Meanings of life

Baumeister R. F., 1998, Handbook of social psychology, 4, 680

10.1037/0022-3514.62.5.851

10.1037/0022-3514.64.1.141

Baumeister R. F., 1994, Losing control: How and why people fail at self-regulation

10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497

10.1111/j.1467-6494.1985.tb00376.x

10.1111/j.1467-6494.1989.tb02384.x

10.1111/j.2044-8309.1984.tb00614.x

10.1111/j.2044-8295.1976.tb01492.x

Berlyne D. E., 1971, Aesthetics and psychobiology

10.1177/0146167297235008

10.1037/h0032589

10.1007/978-1-4684-8956-9_4

10.1002/ejsp.2420220507

10.1037/h0048316

10.1016/S0022-5371(69)80002-2

Bradley M. M., 1997, Affective norms for English words

10.1017/CBO9780511664014.004

Brickman P., 1971, Adaptation level theory: A symposium, 287

10.1037/0022-3514.36.8.917

BrownJ. S. (1940). Generalized approach and avoidance responses in relation to conflict behavior. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Yale University.

10.1037/0033-2909.115.3.401

10.1207/s15327957pspr0101_2

10.1111/j.2044-8260.1991.tb00927.x

Campbell A., 1976, The quality of American life: Perceptions, evaluations, and satisfactions

10.1080/00221309.1966.9710350

CassirerE. (1955). The philosophy of symbolic forms: Vol. 1. Language. Yale University Press. (Original work published 1921)

10.1037/0022-3514.34.3.366

10.1037/0022-3514.39.3.406

10.1002/ejsp.2420230202

10.1007/978-94-009-2792-6_15

Clore G. L., 1994, Handbook of social cognition, 2, 323

10.1146/annurev.psych.47.1.113

10.1111/j.1559-1816.1987.tb02347.x

10.1016/0022-0965(73)90009-X

Czapinski J., 1985, Polish Psychological Bulletin, 16, 27

Czapinski J., 1986, Polish Psychological Bulletin, 17, 155

10.1037/0022-3514.73.1.149

10.1037/0033-2909.95.3.542

10.1037/0022-3514.48.5.1253

10.1037/0022-3514.37.10.1758

10.1016/0022-1031(76)90030-5

10.7208/chicago/9780226027357.001.0001

10.7208/chicago/9780226147727.001.0001

10.1023/A:1009009018235

10.1037/0022-3514.69.6.1052

ExlineJ. J. & BaumeisterR. F. (1999). [Forgiveness in prisoner's dilemma games]. Unpublished findings, Case Western Reserve University.

10.1016/B978-1-4832-2828-0.50008-8

10.2307/3707362

Fiedler L. A., 1982, Love and death in the American novel

10.1007/BF00922637

10.1521/jscp.1998.17.3.295

10.1007/BF00894057

Fiske S. T., 1980, Journal of Experimental Research in Personality, 22, 889

Fiske S. T., 1991, Social cognition

10.1016/S0145-2134(98)00118-5

10.1002/ejsp.2420220603

10.4278/0890-1171-6.4.280

Frankl V. E., 1963, Man's search for meaning: An introduction to logotherapy

French D. C., 1986, Behavioral Assessment, 8, 331

10.3758/BF03342209

10.1037/0894-4105.14.1.125

10.1093/chemse/12.2.355

10.1037/0022-3514.75.3.617

10.1037/0022-3514.44.6.1110

Gilovich T., 1991, How we know what isn't so

10.1016/0889-1591(87)90002-X

10.1037/0022-3514.51.1.117

Gottman J., 1994, Why marriages succeed or fail

Gottman J. M., 1979, Marital interaction

10.1037/0022-006X.57.1.47

Gottman J. M., 1986, Behavioral Assessment, 8, 31

10.1037/0022-3514.38.2.193

10.1037/0022-3514.63.1.75

10.1037/0003-066X.35.7.603

10.1037/h0031698

Hamilton D. L., 1972, Journal of Experimental Research in Personality, 6, 204

Helson H., 1964, Adaptation-level theory: An experimental and systematic approach to behavior

10.1097/00006842-199407000-00009

Herrnstein R. J., 1994, The bell curve: Intelligence and class structure in America

10.1037/0033-295X.94.3.319

10.1037/0022-3514.71.6.1062

10.1037/h0036890

10.1037/h0029394

10.1037/0022-3514.48.6.1398

10.1111/j.1467-6494.1995.tb00317.x

10.1521/jscp.1996.15.1.53

10.1037/0022-3514.80.2.237

10.1037/0022-3514.61.5.721

10.1002/ejsp.2420230102

10.1177/0146167298248006

10.1037/0022-3514.75.4.887

Jensen A. R., 1998, The g factor

10.1177/014616727800400205

10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60107-0

10.2307/1914185

10.1038/scientificamerican0182-160

10.1037/0003-066X.39.4.341

Kanouse D. E., 1972, Attribution: Perceiving the causes of behavior, 47

10.1037/0022-3514.52.3.639

10.1080/03637758409390182

10.1097/00006842-198401000-00003

10.1007/BF00844640

10.1037/0278-6133.4.1.25

Klein W. M., 1992, Constructing social reality: Greater bias for negative than for positive behaviors?

10.1037/h0077724

10.1111/j.2044-8295.1968.tb01128.x

10.1177/0146167298243006

10.1111/j.1467-6494.1982.tb00746.x

10.1037/0012-1649.34.5.1038

10.1037/0022-3514.51.4.803

Laumann E. O., 1994, The social organization of sexuality: Sexual practices in the United States

10.1001/jama.281.6.537

10.1037/0022-3514.68.3.518

10.1162/jocn.1989.1.3.238

10.1037/0022-3514.71.6.1250

10.1037/0022-3514.45.3.587

10.1037/0022-3514.49.1.85

10.1037/0096-3445.129.1.43

10.1037/0022-3514.72.6.1349

10.1023/A:1025574626454

10.2224/sbp.1981.9.2.223

10.1002/ejsp.2420220504

Maslow A. H., 1968, Toward a psychology of being

Matlin M. W., 1978, The pollyanna principle

10.1016/0272-7358(92)90116-P

10.1300/J085v10n03_01

10.1037/0022-3514.40.3.521

10.1037/0022-3514.72.6.1284

10.1037/h0049119

Miller N. E., 1944, Personality and the behavior disorders, 1, 431

10.1162/jocn.1997.9.6.788

10.1037/0022-006X.44.1.92

10.1111/j.2044-8309.1990.tb00883.x

Myers D. G., 1992, The pursuit of happiness

10.1037/h0047103

10.1037/0033-2909.113.1.99

NezlekJ. B. & GableS. L. (1999). Daily events, day-to-day psychological adjustment, and depressive symptoms. Manuscript submitted for publication.

10.1037/0022-3514.80.3.381

10.1037/0022-3514.52.2.379

10.1177/0146167298249006

10.1093/geront/30.2.193

Osgood C. E., 1990, Language, meaning, and culture: The selected papers of C. E. Osgood

10.1037/0022-3514.53.4.793

10.1080/14792779108401856

10.1016/0005-7967(93)90105-4

10.1037/0022-3514.58.3.528

10.1037/0022-006X.56.2.239

Penney R. K., 1968, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1, 140

10.1037/h0045445

10.2307/352427

10.1073/pnas.91.16.7398

10.1037/0022-3514.61.3.380

10.1016/0896-6273(95)90092-6

10.1038/212438a0

Reyes G. M., 1999, Just (don't) talk: Comparing the impact of interaction style on sexual desire and social attraction

10.1037/h0036892

10.1001/archpsyc.1970.01740300047006

10.1080/00221309.1996.9921263

10.1037/0022-3514.73.6.1345

10.1037/0022-3514.46.5.1097

10.1037/0022-3514.50.1.131

10.1111/1467-8624.00084

RozinP. & RoyzmanE. B. (in press). Negativity bias, negativity dominance, and contagion. Personality and Social Psychology Review.

10.1037/0022-3514.55.2.293

10.1037/0022-3514.50.4.744

10.1016/0022-1031(83)90042-2

RussellJ. A., Fernandez-DolsJ. M., MansteadA. S. R. & WellenkampJ. (1995). Everyday conceptions of emotion: An introduction to the psychology, anthropology, and linguistics of emotion. Behavioral and social sciences (Vol. 81, pp. 244-297). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic.

10.1080/00224498809551405

10.1016/0014-4886(79)90175-4

10.2307/1130897

10.1037/0278-6133.4.3.219

10.1037/0882-7974.11.2.304

10.1007/BF00938116

Schwarz N., 1990, The handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior, 2, 527

10.1037/0022-3514.65.2.317

SeligmanM. (1999, April). Positive social science [president's column]. APA Monitor. p. 2.

Shah J., 1999, The regulatory focus and goal organization: Implications for self-regulation

10.1177/01461672962212007

10.1111/j.1540-4560.1983.tb00142.x

10.1037/0022-3514.60.6.831

10.1037/0022-3514.52.4.689

Skowronski J. J., 1989, Psychological Review, 105, 131

10.1002/ejsp.2420220503

10.2307/1126803

10.1111/j.1467-8624.1967.tb04325.x

10.1177/0265407591082004

Sternbach R. A., 1968, Pain: A psychophysiological analysis

10.1016/S0145-2134(97)00062-8

10.1037/0003-066X.38.11.1161

10.1037/0033-2909.110.1.67

10.1037/0033-2909.103.2.193

10.1037/0022-3514.59.2.291

Thompson L. A., 1999, Differences in the heritability of general intelligence across levels of father's occupation

10.1037/0022-3514.60.5.711

10.1016/0022-0965(74)90099-X

10.1111/j.1468-2958.1983.tb00701.x

10.1111/j.2044-8295.1987.tb02262.x

10.1002/ejsp.2420230108

10.1037/0022-3514.65.2.350

10.1177/0146167293193003

10.1002/(SICI)1099-0992(199611)26:6<851::AID-EJSP790>3.0.CO;2-9

10.1002/(SICI)1099-0992(199903/05)29:2/3<139::AID-EJSP917>3.0.CO;2-N

10.1521/soco.1994.12.3.169

10.1002/(SICI)1099-0720(199710)11:5<399::AID-ACP462>3.0.CO;2-E

10.1037/0033-2909.98.2.219

Webster E. C., 1964, Decision making in the employment interview

Weinberg G. M., 1975, An introduction to general systems thinking

10.1037/0033-2909.97.1.74

10.1037/0022-3514.39.5.806

10.1176/ajp.156.6.816

10.1177/01461672992512010

10.1037/h0037524

Wright B. A., 1991, Handbook of social and clinical psychology: The health perspective, 469

10.1037/0022-3514.34.3.481

10.1016/0022-1031(91)90030-A

Thông tin
Thông tin xuất bản

Review of General Psychology

Tập 5 Số 4

323-370

Thông tin tác giả