Autophagy in Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection: A passepartout to flush the intruder out?

WHO. REPORT 2012, http://www.who.int/tb/publications/global_report/en/. Gengenbacher, 2012, Mycobacterium tuberculosis: success through dormancy, FEMS Microbiology Review, 36, 514, 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2012.00331.x Armstrong, 1975, Phagosome–lysosome interactions in cultured macrophages infected with virulent tubercle bacilli. Reversal of the usual nonfusion pattern and observations on bacterial survival, Journal of Experimental Medicine, 142, 1, 10.1084/jem.142.1.1 Kaufmann, 2001, How can immunology contribute to the control of tuberculosis?, Nature Reviews Immunology, 1, 20, 10.1038/35095558 Russell, 2001, Mycobacterium tuberculosis: here today, and here tomorrow, Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology, 2, 569, 10.1038/35085034 Russell, 2002, Mycobacterium and the coat of many lipids, Journal of Cell Biology, 158, 421, 10.1083/jcb.200205034 van Crevel, 2003, Innate immunity to Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, 531, 241, 10.1007/978-1-4615-0059-9_20 Reece, 2012, Floating between the poles of pathology and protection: can we pin down the granuloma in tuberculosis?, Current Opinion in Microbiology, 15, 63, 10.1016/j.mib.2011.10.006 Flynn, 1995, Tumor necrosis factor-alpha is required in the protective immune response against Mycobacterium tuberculosis in mice, Immunity, 2, 561, 10.1016/1074-7613(95)90001-2 Manca, 2001, Virulence of a Mycobacterium tuberculosis clinical isolate in mice is determined by failure to induce Th1 type immunity and is associated with induction of IFN-alpha/beta, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 98, 5752, 10.1073/pnas.091096998 Casanova, 2002, Genetic dissection of immunity to mycobacteria: the human model, Annual Review of Immunology, 20, 581, 10.1146/annurev.immunol.20.081501.125851 Gallegos, 2011, A gamma interferon independent mechanism of CD4 T cell mediated control of M. tuberculosis infection in vivo, PLoS Pathogens, 7, e1002052, 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002052 Bumbacea, 2012, The risk of tuberculosis in transplant candidates and recipients: a TBNET consensus statement, European Respiratory Journal, 40, 990, 10.1183/09031936.00000712 Solovic, 2010, The risk of tuberculosis related to tumour necrosis factor antagonist therapies: a TBNET consensus statement, European Respiratory Journal, 36, 1185, 10.1183/09031936.00028510 Harris, 2011, Autophagy and cytokines, Cytokine, 56, 140, 10.1016/j.cyto.2011.08.022 Rook, 2007, Th2 cytokines in susceptibility to tuberculosis, Current Molecular Medicine, 7, 327, 10.2174/156652407780598557 Tomioka, 2011, Development of new antituberculous drugs based on bacterial virulence factors interfering with host cytokine networks, Journal of Infection and Chemotherapy, 17, 302, 10.1007/s10156-010-0177-y Ottenhoff, 2012, New pathways of protective and pathological host defense to mycobacteria, Trends in Microbiology, 20, 419, 10.1016/j.tim.2012.06.002 Mizushima, 2008, Autophagy fights disease through cellular self-digestion, Nature, 451, 1069, 10.1038/nature06639 Kroemer, 2010, Autophagy and the integrated stress response, Molecular Cell, 40, 280, 10.1016/j.molcel.2010.09.023 Mizushima, 2010, The role of the Atg1/ULK1 complex in autophagy regulation, Current Opinion in Cell Biology, 22, 132, 10.1016/j.ceb.2009.12.004 Fimia, 2012, Ambra1 at the crossroad between autophagy and cell death, Oncogene Matsunaga, 2010, Autophagy requires endoplasmic reticulum targeting of the PI3-kinase complex via Atg14L, Journal of Cell Biology, 190, 511, 10.1083/jcb.200911141 Zalckvar, 2009, DAP-kinase-mediated phosphorylation on the BH3 domain of beclin 1 promotes dissociation of beclin 1 from Bcl-XL and induction of autophagy, EMBO Reports, 10, 285, 10.1038/embor.2008.246 Wei, 2008, JNK1-mediated phosphorylation of Bcl-2 regulates starvation-induced autophagy, Molecular Cell, 30, 678, 10.1016/j.molcel.2008.06.001 Shi, 2010, TRAF6 and A20 regulate lysine 63-linked ubiquitination of Beclin-1 to control TLR4-induced autophagy, Science Signaling, 3, ra42, 10.1126/scisignal.2000751 Platta, 2012, Nedd4-dependent lysine-11-linked polyubiquitination of the tumour suppressor Beclin 1, Biochemical Journal, 441, 399, 10.1042/BJ20111424 Johansen, 2011, Selective autophagy mediated by autophagic adapter proteins, Autophagy, 7, 279, 10.4161/auto.7.3.14487 Shaid, 2012, Ubiquitination and selective autophagy, Cell Death and Differentiation Wild, 2011, Phosphorylation of the autophagy receptor optineurin restricts Salmonella growth, Science, 333, 228, 10.1126/science.1205405 Pilli, 2012, TBK-1 promotes autophagy-mediated antimicrobial defense by controlling autophagosome maturation, Immunity, 37, 223, 10.1016/j.immuni.2012.04.015 Thurston, 2012, Galectin 8 targets damaged vesicles for autophagy to defend cells against bacterial invasion, Nature, 482, 414, 10.1038/nature10744 Orvedahl, 2009, Eating the enemy within: autophagy in infectious diseases, Cell Death and Differentiation, 16, 57, 10.1038/cdd.2008.130 Deretic, 2012, Autophagy as an innate immunity paradigm: expanding the scope and repertoire of pattern recognition receptors, Current Opinion in Immunology, 24, 21, 10.1016/j.coi.2011.10.006 Munz, 2009, Enhancing immunity through autophagy, Annual Review of Immunology, 27, 423, 10.1146/annurev.immunol.021908.132537 Lee, 2007, Autophagy-dependent viral recognition by plasmacytoid dendritic cells, Science, 315, 1398, 10.1126/science.1136880 Travassos, 2010, Nod1 and Nod2 direct autophagy by recruiting ATG16L1 to the plasma membrane at the site of bacterial entry, Nature Immunology, 11, 55, 10.1038/ni.1823 Jounai, 2011, NLRP4 negatively regulates autophagic processes through an association with beclin1, Journal of Immunology, 186, 1646, 10.4049/jimmunol.1001654 Saitoh, 2010, Regulation of innate immune responses by autophagy-related proteins, Journal of Cell Biology, 189, 925, 10.1083/jcb.201002021 Randow, 2012, Autophagy in the regulation of pathogen replication and adaptive immunity, Trends in Immunology, 33, 475, 10.1016/j.it.2012.06.003 Lee, 2010, In vivo requirement for Atg5 in antigen presentation by dendritic cells, Immunity, 32, 227, 10.1016/j.immuni.2009.12.006 Nedjic, 2008, Autophagy in thymic epithelium shapes the T-cell repertoire and is essential for tolerance, Nature, 455, 396, 10.1038/nature07208 Pua, 2007, A critical role for the autophagy gene Atg5 in T cell survival and proliferation, Journal of Experimental Medicine, 204, 25, 10.1084/jem.20061303 Mortensen, 2011, The autophagy protein Atg7 is essential for hematopoietic stem cell maintenance, Journal of Experimental Medicine, 208, 455, 10.1084/jem.20101145 Gutierrez, 2004, Autophagy is a defense mechanism inhibiting BCG and Mycobacterium tuberculosis survival in infected macrophages, Cell, 119, 753, 10.1016/j.cell.2004.11.038 Kumar, 2010, Genome-wide analysis of the host intracellular network that regulates survival of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Cell, 140, 731, 10.1016/j.cell.2010.02.012 Castillo, 2012, Autophagy protects against active tuberculosis by suppressing bacterial burden and inflammation, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109, E3168, 10.1073/pnas.1210500109 Singh, 2006, Human IRGM induces autophagy to eliminate intracellular mycobacteria, Science, 313, 1438, 10.1126/science.1129577 Singh, 2010, Human IRGM regulates autophagy and cell-autonomous immunity functions through mitochondria, Nature Cell Biology, 12, 1154, 10.1038/ncb2119 Kim, 2011, A family of IFN-gamma-inducible 65-kD GTPases protects against bacterial infection, Science, 332, 717, 10.1126/science.1201711 Ponpuak, 2010, Delivery of cytosolic components by autophagic adaptor protein p62 endows autophagosomes with unique antimicrobial properties, Immunity, 32, 329, 10.1016/j.immuni.2010.02.009 Petruccioli, 2012, Specific T cells restore the autophagic flux inhibited by Mycobacterium tuberculosis in human primary macrophages, Journal of Infectious Diseases, 205, 1425, 10.1093/infdis/jis226 Romagnoli, 2012, ESX-1 dependent impairment of autophagic flux by Mycobacterium tuberculosis in human dendritic cells, Autophagy, 8, 1357, 10.4161/auto.20881 Shin, 2010, Mycobacterium tuberculosis eis regulates autophagy, inflammation, and cell death through redox-dependent signaling, PLoS Pathogens, 6, e1001230, 10.1371/journal.ppat.1001230 Zhang, 2012, Effects of Mycobacterium tuberculosis ESAT-6/CFP-10 fusion protein on the autophagy function of mouse macrophages, DNA and Cell Biology, 31, 171, 10.1089/dna.2011.1290 Kim, 2012, Mycobacterium tuberculosis Eis protein initiates suppression of host immune responses by acetylation of DUSP16/MKP-7, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109, 7729, 10.1073/pnas.1120251109 Kathania, 2011, Bfl-1/A1 acts as a negative regulator of autophagy in mycobacteria infected macrophages, International Journal of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, 43, 573, 10.1016/j.biocel.2010.12.014 Karim, 2011, Express path analysis identifies a tyrosine kinase Src-centric network regulating divergent host responses to Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection, Journal of Biological Chemistry, 286, 40307, 10.1074/jbc.M111.266239 Watson, 2012, Extracellular M. tuberculosis DNA targets bacteria for autophagy by activating the host DNA-sensing pathway, Cell, 150, 803, 10.1016/j.cell.2012.06.040 Manzanillo, 2012, Mycobacterium tuberculosis activates the DNA-dependent cytosolic surveillance pathway within macrophages, Cell Host & Microbe, 11, 469, 10.1016/j.chom.2012.03.007 Salgame, 2005, Host innate and Th1 responses and the bacterial factors that control Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection, Current Opinion in Immunology, 17, 374, 10.1016/j.coi.2005.06.006 Harris, 2008, Tumor necrosis factor blockers influence macrophage responses to Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Journal of Infectious Diseases, 198, 1842, 10.1086/593174 Kim, 2012, Host cell autophagy activated by antibiotics is required for their effective antimycobacterial drug action, Cell Host & Microbe, 11, 457, 10.1016/j.chom.2012.03.008 Kleinnijenhuis, 2011, Autophagy modulates the Mycobacterium tuberculosis-induced cytokine response, Immunology, 134, 341, 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2011.03494.x Ladel, 1997, Lethal tuberculosis in interleukin-6-deficient mutant mice, Infection and Immunity, 65, 4843, 10.1128/IAI.65.11.4843-4849.1997 Leal, 1999, Interleukin-6 and interleukin-12 participate in induction of a type 1 protective T-cell response during vaccination with a tuberculosis subunit vaccine, Infection and Immunity, 67, 5747, 10.1128/IAI.67.11.5747-5754.1999 Nagabhushanam, 2003, Innate inhibition of adaptive immunity: Mycobacterium tuberculosis-induced IL-6 inhibits macrophage responses to IFN-gamma, Journal of Immunology, 171, 4750, 10.4049/jimmunol.171.9.4750 Dutta, 2012, IL-6 inhibits IFN-gamma induced autophagy in Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv infected macrophages, International Journal of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, 44, 942, 10.1016/j.biocel.2012.02.021 Harris, 2007, T helper 2 cytokines inhibit autophagic control of intracellular Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Immunity, 27, 505, 10.1016/j.immuni.2007.07.022 Andrade, 2006, CD40 induces macrophage anti-Toxoplasma gondii activity by triggering autophagy-dependent fusion of pathogen-containing vacuoles and lysosomes, Journal of Clinical Investigation, 116, 2366, 10.1172/JCI28796 Subauste, 2007, CD40-TRAF6 and autophagy-dependent anti-microbial activity in macrophages, Autophagy, 3, 245, 10.4161/auto.3717 Larkin, 2002, CD40 ligand (CD154) does not contribute to lymphocyte-mediated inhibition of virulent Mycobacterium tuberculosis within human monocytes, Infection and Immunity, 70, 4716, 10.1128/IAI.70.8.4716-4720.2002 Campos-Neto, 1998, CD40 ligand is not essential for the development of cell-mediated immunity and resistance to Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Journal of Immunology, 160, 2037, 10.4049/jimmunol.160.5.2037 Shi, 2012, Activation of autophagy by inflammatory signals limits IL-1beta production by targeting ubiquitinated inflammasomes for destruction, Nature Immunology, 13, 255, 10.1038/ni.2215 Zhou, 2011, A role for mitochondria in NLRP3 inflammasome activation, Nature, 469, 221, 10.1038/nature09663 Nakahira, 2011, Autophagy proteins regulate innate immune responses by inhibiting the release of mitochondrial DNA mediated by the NALP3 inflammasome, Nature Immunology, 12, 222, 10.1038/ni.1980 Harris, 2011, Autophagy controls IL-1beta secretion by targeting pro-IL-1beta for degradation, Journal of Biological Chemistry, 286, 9587, 10.1074/jbc.M110.202911 Dupont, 2011, Autophagy-based unconventional secretory pathway for extracellular delivery of IL-1beta, EMBO Journal, 30, 4701, 10.1038/emboj.2011.398 Hmama, 1999, 1alpha, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3)-induced myeloid cell differentiation is regulated by a vitamin D receptor-phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase signaling complex, Journal of Experimental Medicine, 190, 1583, 10.1084/jem.190.11.1583 Martineau, 2011, High-dose vitamin D(3) during intensive-phase antimicrobial treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis: a double-blind randomised controlled trial, Lancet, 377, 242, 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61889-2 Yuk, 2009, Vitamin D3 induces autophagy in human monocytes/macrophages via cathelicidin, Cell Host & Microbe, 6, 231, 10.1016/j.chom.2009.08.004 Shin, 2010, Mycobacterial lipoprotein activates autophagy via TLR2/1/CD14 and a functional vitamin D receptor signalling, Cellular Microbiology, 12, 1648, 10.1111/j.1462-5822.2010.01497.x Fabri, 2011, Vitamin D is required for IFN-gamma-mediated antimicrobial activity of human macrophages, Science Translational Medicine, 3, 10.1126/scitranslmed.3003045 Campbell, 2012, Vitamin D inhibits human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in macrophages through the induction of autophagy, PLoS Pathogens, 8, e1002689, 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002689 Lam, 2012, Nitazoxanide stimulates autophagy and inhibits mTORC1 signaling and intracellular proliferation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, PLoS Pathogens, 8, e1002691, 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002691 Zullo, 2012, Old antibiotics target TB with a new trick, Cell Host & Microbe, 11, 419, 10.1016/j.chom.2012.05.002 Jagannath, 2009, Autophagy enhances the efficacy of BCG vaccine by increasing peptide presentation in mouse dendritic cells, Nature Medicine, 15, 267, 10.1038/nm.1928 Fleming, 2011, Chemical modulators of autophagy as biological probes and potential therapeutics, Nature Chemical Biology, 7, 9, 10.1038/nchembio.500 Intemann, 2009, Autophagy gene variant IRGM -261T contributes to protection from tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis but not by M. africanum strains, PLoS Pathogens, 5, e1000577, 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000577 King, 2011, Polymorphic allele of human IRGM1 is associated with susceptibility to tuberculosis in African Americans, PLoS One, 6, e16317, 10.1371/journal.pone.0016317 Che, 2010, Identification of a novel IRGM promoter single nucleotide polymorphism associated with tuberculosis, Clinica Chimica Acta, 411, 1645, 10.1016/j.cca.2010.06.009 Bahari, 2012, Association of IRGM polymorphisms and susceptibility to pulmonary tuberculosis in Zahedan, Southeast Iran, Scientific World Journal, 2012, 950801, 10.1100/2012/950801 Di Virgilio, 1995, The P2Z purinoceptor: an intriguing role in immunity, inflammation and cell death, Immunology Today, 16, 524, 10.1016/0167-5699(95)80045-X Lammas, 1997, ATP-induced killing of mycobacteria by human macrophages is mediated by purinergic P2Z(P2X7) receptors, Immunity, 7, 433, 10.1016/S1074-7613(00)80364-7 Stober, 2001, ATP-mediated killing of Mycobacterium bovis bacille Calmette-Guerin within human macrophages is calcium dependent and associated with the acidification of mycobacteria-containing phagosomes, Journal of Immunology, 166, 6276, 10.4049/jimmunol.166.10.6276 Biswas, 2008, ATP-induced autophagy is associated with rapid killing of intracellular mycobacteria within human monocytes/macrophages, BMC Immunology, 9, 35, 10.1186/1471-2172-9-35 Fernando, 2005, Gene dosage determines the negative effects of polymorphic alleles of the P2X7 receptor on adenosine triphosphate-mediated killing of mycobacteria by human macrophages, Journal of Infectious Diseases, 192, 149, 10.1086/430622 Li, 2002, Association of a polymorphism in the P2X7 gene with tuberculosis in a Gambian population, Journal of Infectious Diseases, 186, 1458, 10.1086/344351 Songane, 2012, Polymorphisms in autophagy genes and susceptibility to tuberculosis, PLoS One, 7, e41618, 10.1371/journal.pone.0041618