Attentional apartheid: spatial filters of ethno-national identity in Palestinian and Israeli mental maps of “Al-Quds” and “Jerusalem”
Tóm tắt
What do Palestinian and Israeli Jerusalemites see and unsee in their city? What epistemological prisms are used to construct and reify their ethno-national view of place? How do these attentional frames “filter” the spatial information? Tracing the phenomenological visibilities, invisibilities, and boundary-works in local sketch-maps and mental maps of Al-Quds and Jerusalem, the present analysis uncovers two predominant epistemological prisms, which serve as attentional filters in local perceptions of place: the residential templates of “village” and “neighborhood” and the cardinal directions of “east” and “west.” The observed prevalent perceptual reliance on these semi-neutral lenses in mental mapping authoritatively naturalizes the attentional foregrounding of spatial elements associated with one ethno-national identity and conversely reinforces the attentional backgrounding of spatial markers associated with the Other ethno-national identity. This emerging pattern of attentional apartheid reflects an extremely polarized, asymmetrical cultural classification of reality.
Từ khóa
Tài liệu tham khảo
Abu El-Haj, N. 2001. Facts on the Ground. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Abu-Lughod, L., and A.H. Sa’di. 2007. Introduction: the claims of memory. In Nakba: Palestine, 1948, and the Claims of Memory, ed. A.H. Sa’di and L. Abu-Lughod, 1–24. New York: Columbia University Press.
Amichai, Y. 1987. Tourists. In Poems of Jerusalem, ed. Y. Amichai, 177. Tel Aviv: Shocken Publishing House.
Bakshi, A. 2017. Topographies of Memories: A New Poetics of Commemoration. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Barthes, R. [1964] 1968. Elements of Semiology. New York: Hill and Wang.
Bateson, G. [1955] 1972. A theory of play and fantasy. In Steps to an Ecology of Mind, ed. G. Bateson, 117–193. New York: Ballantine Books.
Ben-Ari, E., and Y. Bilu, eds. 1997. Grasping Land: Space and Place in Contemporary Israeli Discourse and Experience. New York: SUNY Press.
Ben-Ze’ev, E. 2011. Remembering Palestine in 1948: Beyond National Narratives. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Benvenisti, M. 2000. Sacred Landscape: The Buried History of the Holy Land Since 1948. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Berger, T. 2008. In the Space Between World and Playing: The Model in Israeli Culture. Tel Aviv: Resling (Hebrew).
Berger, P.L., and T. Luckmann. [1966] 1967. The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge. Garden City: Anchor Books.
Bollens, S. 2000. On Narrow Ground: Urban Policy and Ethnic Conflict in Jerusalem and Belfast. Albany: SUNY Press.
Bourdieu, P. [1971] 1973. The Berber House. In Rules and Meanings: The Anthropology of Everyday Knowledge, ed. M. Douglas, 98–110. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Brekhus, W.H. 1996. Social marking and the mental coloring of identity: Sexual identity construction and maintenance in the United States. Sociological Forum 11: 497–520.
Brekhus, W.H. 1998. A sociology of the unmarked: Redirecting our focus. Sociological Theory 16: 34–49.
Brekhus, W.H. 2007. The Rutgers school: A Zerubavelian culturalist cognitive sociology. European Journal of Social Theory 10: 448–460.
Bishara, A. [2004] 2005. The Checkpoint. Tel Aviv: Babel and Yedioth Books (Hebrew).
Certeau, M. de [1980] 1984. The Practice of Everyday Life. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Charness, G., U. Gneezy, and M.A. Kuhn. 2012. Experimental methods: Between-subject and within-subject design. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 81: 1–8.
Choshen, M. 2014. The 2014 Statistical Yearbook of Jerusalem. Jerusalem: Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies and the Municipality of Jerusalem. https://jerusaleminstitute.org.il/en/yearbook/#/3459. Accessed 21 May 2023.
Cohen, H. 2011. The Rise and Fall of Arab Jerusalem: Palestinian Politics and the City Since 1967. New York: Routledge.
Dahamshe, A. 2018. Beyond a linguistic ownership: Comparative cultural reading of the Hebrew and Arab names of natural landscapes. In Place Names and Spatial Identity in Israel-Palestine: Majority-Minority Relations, Oblivion, and Memory, ed. A. Dahamshe and Y. Schwhartz, 105–140. Tel Aviv: Resling (Hebrew).
Darwish, M. 2007. To our land. In The Butterfly’s Burden, ed. M. Darwish, 203. Port Townsend: Copper Canyon Press.
Davis, R. 2007. Mapping the past, re-creating the homeland: Memories of village places in pre-1948 Palestine. In Nakba: Palestine, 1948, and the Claims of Memory, ed. A.H. Sa’di and L. Abu-Lughod, 53–74. New York: Columbia University Press.
Dinzey-Flores, Z.Z. 2013. Locked In, Locked Out: Gated Communities in a Puerto Rican City. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Durkheim, E. [1912] 1995. The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life. New York: Free Press.
Durkheim, E., and M. Mauss. [1903] 1963. Primitive Classification. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Efrat, Z. 2006. Israel as megalopolis. In The Israeli City—Last Hebrew City?, ed. O. Heilbronner and M. Levin, 71–81. Tel Aviv: Resling (Hebrew).
Eyal, G. 1993. Between east and west: The discourse on the ‘Arab Village’ in Israel. Theory and Criticism 3: 39–56 (Hebrew).
Feige, M. 2017. In Al Daʻat Ha’maḳom: Israeli Realm of Memory, ed. D. Ohana. Sede Boker: The Ben-Gurion Research Institute and Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (Hebrew).
Fenster, T. 2009. Cognitive temporal mapping: The three steps method in urban planning. Planning Theory & Practice 10 (4): 479–498.
Fenster, T. 2012. Whose City is it? Planning, Knowledge and Everyday Life. Tel Aviv: Hakibbutz Hameuchad (Hebrew).
Fischer, N. 2016. Seeing and unseeing the dome of the rock. In Spatializing Peace and Conflict: Mapping the Production of Places, Sites, and Scales of Violence, ed. A. Björkdahl and S. Buckley-Zistel, 242–264. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Fleishman, L., and I. Salomon. 2008. Israel’s eastern border: Ask not ‘Where is the Green Line?’ Ask ‘What is the Green Line?’ Geoforum 39: 1021–1043.
Foucault, M. [1976] 1980. Questions on geography. In Power/Knowledge: Selected interviews and Other Writings, 1972–1977, ed. C. Gordon, 63–77. New York: Pantheon Books.
Friedman, A. 2013. Blind to Sameness: Sexpectations and the Social Construction of Male and Female Bodies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Friedman, A. 2019. Cultural blind spots and blind fields: Collective forms of unawareness. In The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Sociology, ed. W.H. Brekhus and G. Ignatow, 467–482. New York: Oxford University Press.
Garfinkel, H. 1967. Studies in Ethnomethodology. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
Geertz, C. 1973. The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays by Clifford Geertz. New York: Basic Books.
Gieryn, T.F. 2000. A space for place in sociology. Annual Review of Sociology 26: 463–496.
Goffman, E. 1961. Fun in games. In Encounters: Two Studies in the Sociology of Interaction, ed. E. Goffman, 15–81. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill.
Goffman, E. 1974. Frame Analysis. New York: Harper Colophon.
Gould, P., and R. White. 1986. Mental Maps, 2nd ed. London: Routledge.
Greenberg-Raanan, M., and N. Avni. 2020. (Ad)dressing belonging in a contested space: Embodied spatial practices of Palestinian and Israeli women in Jerusalem. Political Geography 76: 1–10.
Greenberg-Raanan, M., and N. Shoval. 2014. Mental maps compared to actual spatial behavior using GPS data: A new method for investigating segregation in cities. Cities 36: 28–40.
Gupta, A., and J. Ferguson. 1992. Beyond ‘culture’: Space, identity and the politics of difference. Cultural Anthropology 7 (1): 6–23.
Gupta, A., and J. Ferguson, eds. 1997. Culture, Power, Place: Explorations in Critical Anthropology. Durham: Duke University Press.
Gurevitch, Z. 2007. On Israeli and Jewish Place. Tel Aviv: Am Oved (Hebrew).
Gurevitch, Z., and G. Aran. 1991. On the place (Israeli anthropology). Alpaim 4: 9–44 (Hebrew).
Hall, E.T. 1966. The Hidden Dimension. Garden City: Doubleday.
Handel, A. 2009. Where, whereto and when in the occupied territories: An introduction to geography of disaster. In The Power of Inclusive Exclusion: Anatomy of the Israeli Rule in the Occupied Territories, ed. A. Ophir, M. Givoni, and S. Hanafi, 179–222. New York: Zone Books.
Hasson, N. 2017. Urshalim: Israelis and Palestinians in Jerusalem, 1967–2017. Rishon Lezion: Yedioth Books (Hebrew).
Heilman, S. 1986. A Walker in Jerusalem. New York: Summit Books.
Helms, M.W. 1988. Ulysses’s Sail. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Hercberg, D., and C. Noy. 2013. Beholding the Holy City: Changes in the Iconic Representation of Jerusalem in the 21st Century. Quest: Issues in Contemporary Jewish History 6: 237–263.
Hertz, R. [1909] 1978. The pre-eminence of the right hand: A study in religious polarity. In Right and Left: Essays on Dual Symbolic Classification, ed. R. Needham, 3–22. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Kemp, A. 2000. Borders, space, and national identity in Israel. Theory and Criticism 16: 13–43 (Hebrew).
Khalidi, R. 1997. Palestinian Identity: The Construction of Modern National Consciousness. New York: Columbia University Press.
Kim, A.M. 2015. Critical cartography 2.0: From “participatory mapping” to authored visualizations of power and people. Landscape and Urban Planning 142: 215–225.
Lee, M., and J.L. Martin. 2015. Coding, counting and cultural cartography. American Journal of Cultural Sociology 3 (1): 1–33.
Lefebvre, H. [1974] 1991. The Production of Space. Oxford: Blackwell.
Leuenberger, C., and I. Schnell. 2010. The politics of maps: Constructing national territories in Israel. Social Studies of Science 40 (6): 803–842.
Levi-Strauss, C. 1963. Structural Anthropology. New York: Basic Books.
Levi-Strauss, C. [1964] 1969. The Raw and the Cooked: Mythologiques, vol. 1. New York: Harper & Row.
Lewin, K. [1936] 2015. Principles of Topological Psychology. Mansfield Centre: Martino Publishing.
Lewis, W.M., and K.E. Wigen. [1974] 1997. The Myth of Continents: A Critique of Metageography. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Low, S.M. 1996. Spatializing culture: The social production and social construction of public space in costa rica. American Ethnologist 23 (4): 861–879.
Low, S.M., and D. Lawrence-Zuniga, eds. 2003. The Anthropology of Space and Place: Locating Culture. Malden: Blackwell.
Lynch, K. 1960. The Image of the City. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Malpas, J. 2012. Putting space in place: Philosophical topography and relational geography. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 30 (2): 226–242.
Malpas, J. 2018. Place and Experience: A Philosophical Topography. New York: Routledge.
Massey, D. 1994. Space, Place and Gender. Malden: Polity Press.
Monmonier, M. [1991] 1996. How to Lie with Maps. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Morris-Reich, A. 2010. Life in two-dimensions: Cultural history of ‘surface’ (shetach). Theory and Criticism 36: 35–59 (Hebrew).
Mullaney, J.L. 1999. Making it ‘count’: Mental weighing and identity attribution. Symbolic Interaction 22: 269–281.
Nippert-Eng, C.E. 1996. Home and Work: Negotiating Boundaries through Everyday Life. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Nolte, A., and H. Yacobi. 2015. Politics, infrastructure and representation: The case of Jerusalem’s light rail. Cities 43: 28–36.
Ortner, S. 1973. On key symbols. American Anthropologist 75 (5): 1338–1346.
Padan, Y. 2017. Modelscapes of Nationalism: Collective Memories and Future Visions. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
Perec, G. [1974] 1997. Species of Spaces and Other Pieces. London: Penguin Books.
Pike, K.L. [1954] 1967. Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of the Structure of Human Behavior. The Hague: Mouton.
Portugali, J. 1993. Implicate Relations: Society and Space in the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Portugali, J., and I. Omer. 2003. Systematic distortions in cognitive maps: The North American west coast vs. the (west) coast of Israel. In Spatial Information Theory: Foundations of Geographic Information Science, ed. W. Kuhn, M.F. Worboys, and S. Timpf, 93–100. Berlin: Springer.
Pullan, W., and B. Baillie, eds. 2013. Locating Urban Conflicts: Ethnicity, Nationalism, and the Everyday. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Rabinowitz, D. 1997a. In and out of territory. In Grasping land: Space and Place in Contemporary Israeli Discourse and Experience, ed. E. Ben-Ari and Y. Bilu, 177–201. New York: SUNY Press.
Rabinowitz, D. 1997b. Overlooking Nazareth: The Ethnography of Exclusion in Galilee. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rabinowitz, D., and K. Abu-Baker. 2005. Coffins on Our Shoulders: The Experience of the Palestinian Citizens of Israel. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Relph, E. 1976. Place and Placelessness. London: Pion.
Rokem, J. 2016. Introduction: Learning from Jerusalem—rethinking urban conflicts in the 21st century. City 20 (3): 407–411.
Rosenthal, R. 2007. Gvul Im Kol Davar [Boundary of Everything], Hazira Haleshonit. http://www.ruvik.co.il/%D7%94%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8-%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%91%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%99/2007/02022007.aspx. Accessed 15 May 2020. (Hebrew).
Rubin, E. [1915] 1921. Visuell Wahrgenommene Figuren: Studien in Psychologischer Analyse. Copenhagen: Gyldendalske Boghandel (German).
Rubin, E. [1915] 1958. Figure and ground. In Readings in Perception, ed. D.C. Beardslee and M. Wertheimer, 194–203. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Company.
Saarinen, T.F. 1976. Environmental Planning: Perception and Behavior. London: Houghton Mifflin.
Sahlins, M. 1976. Culture and Practical Reason. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Saussure, F. de [1915] 1959. Course in General Linguistics. New York: Philosophical Library.
Schutz, A. 1953. Common-sense and scientific interpretation of human action. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 14 (1): 1–38.
Schutz, A., and T. Luckmann. 1973. The Structures of the Life-World. Evanston: Northwestern University Press.
Schwartz, B. 1981. Vertical Classification: A Study in Structuralism and the Sociology of Knowledge. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Shalev, G. 2016. The ‘P’ Word: Hospital Ethics Committees and Palestinian National Identity. Somatosphere: Science, Medicine, and Anthropology. http://somatosphere.net/2016/the-p-word-hospital-ethics-committees-and-palestinian-national-identity.html/. Accessed 16 May 2020.
Shanon, B. 1983. Answers to where-questions. Discourse Processes 6: 319–352.
Shehadeh, R. 2017. Where the Line is Drawn: Crossing Boundaries in Occupied Palestine. London: Profile Books.
Shenhav, Y., ed. 2003. Space, Land and Home: The Origin of the Israeli Territorial Regime. Tel-Aviv: Van leer Institute and Hakibbutz Hameuchad (Hebrew).
Shenhav, Y. 2006. The Arab-Jews: A Postcolonial Reading of Nationalism, Religion, and Ethnicity. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Shields, R. 1991. Places on the Margin: Alternative Geographies of Modernity. London: Routledge.
Shields, R. 2013. Spatial Questions: Cultural Topologies and Social Spatializations. London: Sage Publications.
Shlay, A.B., and G. Rosen. 2010. Making place: The shifting green line and the development of ‘greater’ metropolitan Jerusalem. City & Community 9 (4): 358–389.
Shlay, A.B., and G. Rosen. 2015. Jerusalem: The Spatial Politics of a divided Metropolis. Madlen: Polity Press.
Shtern, M. 2016. Urban neoliberalism vs. ethno-national division: The case of west Jerusalem’s shopping malls. Cities 52: 132–139.
Shtern, M., and J. Rokem. 2021. Towards urban geopolitics of encounter: Spatial mixing in contested Jerusalem. Geopolitics. https://doi.org/10.1080/14650045.2021.1926992.
Sibley, D. 1995. Geographies of Exclusion. New York: Routledge.
Simmel, G. [1903] 1997. The sociology of space. In Simmel on Culture: Selected Writings, ed. D. Frisby and M. Featherstone, 137–170. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Simmel, G. [1908] 1959. The problem of sociology. In Georg Simmel, 1858–1918: A Collection of Essays with Translations and Bibliography, ed. K.H. Wolff, 310–335. Columbus: Ohio University Press.
Simmel, G. [1909] 1997. Bridge and door. In Simmel on Culture: Selected Writings, ed. D. Frisby and M. Featherstone, 170–185. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Simmel, G. [1917] 1950. The field of sociology. In The Sociology of Georg Simmel, ed. K.H. Wolff, 3–25. New York: Free Press.
Suttles, G. 1972. The Social Construction of Communities. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Slyomovics, S. 1998. The Object of Memory: Arab and Jew Narrate the Palestinian Village. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Sorokin, P.A. [1927] 1959. Social and Cultural Mobility. Glencoe: Free Press.
Swedenburg, T. 1990. The Palestinian peasant as national signifier. Anthropological Quarterly 63 (1): 18–30.
Tambiah, S.J. 1969. Animals are good to think with and good to prohibit. Ethnology 8: 423–459.
Tuan, Y.F. [1977] 2001. Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Tversky, B. 1992. Distortions in cognitive maps. Geoforum 23 (2): 131–138.
Vaadia, O. 2018. The representation of the political boundary in the maps of education books, 1948–1967. Iyunim 29: 182–209 (Hebrew).
Waugh, L.R. 1982. Marked and unmarked: A choice between unequals in semiotic structure. Semiotica 38: 299–316.
Weizman, E. 2007. Hollow Land: Israel’s Architecture of Occupation. London: Verso.
Yacobi, H. 2016. From ‘ethnocracy’ to urban apartheid: The changing urban geopolitics of Jerusalem/Al-Quds. Cosmopolitan Civil Societies Journal 8 (3): 100–114.
Yacobi, H., and S. Cohen, eds. 2007. Seperation: The Politics of Space in Israel. Tel Aviv: Xargol, Am Oved (Hebrew).
Yiftachel, O. 2006. Ethnocracy: Land and Identity Politics in Israel/Palestine. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Yiftachel, O. 2009. ‘Creeping Apartheid’ in Israel-Palestine. Middle East Report 253: 7–15.
Zerubavel, E. 1992. Terra Cognita: The Mental Discovery of America. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
Zerubavel, E. [1991] 1993. The Fine Line: Making Distinctions in Everyday Life. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Zerubavel, E. 1993. Horizons: On the sociomental foundations of relevance. Social Research 60 (2): 397–413.
Zerubavel, E. 1996. Lumping and splitting: Notes on social classification. Sociological Forum 11: 421–430.
Zerubavel, E. 1997. Social Mindscapes: An Invitation to Cognitive Sociology. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Zerubavel, E. 2015. Hidden in Plain Sight: The Social Structure of Irrelevance. New York: Oxford University Press.
Zerubavel, E. 2018. Taken for Granted: The Remarkable Power of the Unremarkable. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Zerubavel, E. 2021. Generally Speaking: An Invitation to Concept-driven Sociology. New York: Oxford University Press.
Zerubavel, Y. 2019. Desert in the Promised Land. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
