Assays for mitotic chromosome condensation in live yeast and mammalian cells

Ando R, Hama H, Yamamoto-Hino M, Mizuno H, Miyawaki A (2002) An optical marker based on the UV-induced green-to-red photoconversion of a fluorescent protein. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99:12651–12656 Beaudouin J, Gerlich D, Daigle N, Eils R, Ellenberg J (2002) Nuclear envelope breakdown proceeds by microtubule-induced tearing of the lamina. Cell 108:83–96 Belmont AS (2006) Mitotic chromosome structure and condensation. Curr Opin Cell Biol 18:632–638 Belmont AS, Bruce K (1994) Visualization of G1 chromosomes: a folded, twisted, supercoiled chromonema model of interphase chromatid structure. J Cell Biol 127:287–302 Betzig E, Patterson GH, Sougrat R et al (2006) Imaging intracellular fluorescent proteins at nanometer resolution. Science 313:1642–1645 Bouck DC, Joglekar AP, Bloom KS (2008) Design features of a mitotic spindle: balancing tension and compression at a single microtubule kinetochore interface in budding yeast. Annu Rev Genet 135(5):894–906 Chudakov DM, Verkhusha VV, Staroverov DB, Souslova EA, Lukyanov S, Lukyanov KA (2004) Photoswitchable cyan fluorescent protein for protein tracking. Nat Biotechnol 22:1435–1439 Claussen U, Mazur A, Rubtsov N (1994) Chromosomes are highly elastic and can be stretched. Cytogenet Cell Genet 66:120–125 Conrad C, Erfle H, Warnat P et al (2004) Automatic identification of subcellular phenotypes on human cell arrays. Genome Res 14:1130–1136 Dietzel S, Belmont AS (2001) Reproducible but dynamic positioning of DNA in chromosomes during mitosis. Nat Cell Biol 3:767–770 Freeman L, Aragon-Alcaide L, Strunnikov A (2000) The condensin complex governs chromosome condensation and mitotic transmission of rDNA. J Cell Biol 149:811–824 Gassmann R, Vagnarelli P, Hudson D, Earnshaw WC (2004) Mitotic chromosome formation and the condensin paradox. Exp Cell Res 296:35–42 Gerlich D, Beaudouin J, Gebhard M, Ellenberg J, Eils R (2001) Four-dimensional imaging and quantitative reconstruction to analyse complex spatiotemporal processes in live cells. Nat Cell Biol 3:852–855 Gerlich D, Beaudouin J, Kalbfuss B, Daigle N, Eils R, Ellenberg J (2003) Global chromosome positions are transmitted through mitosis in mammalian cells. Cell 112:751–764 Gerlich D, Hirota T, Koch B, Peters JM, Ellenberg J (2006) Condensin I stabilizes chromosomes mechanically through a dynamic interaction in live cells. Curr Biol 16:333–344 Gittes F, Mickey B, Nettleton J, Howard J (1993) Flexural rigidity of microtubules and actin filaments measured from thermal fluctuations in shape. J Cell Biol 120:923–934 Glory E, Murphy RF (2007) Automated subcellular location determination and high-throughput microscopy. Dev Cell 12:7–16 Guacci V, Hogan E, Koshland D (1994) Chromosome condensation and sister chromatid pairing in budding yeast. J Cell Biol 125:517–530 Habuchi S, Ando R, Dedecker P et al (2005) Reversible single-molecule photoswitching in the GFP-like fluorescent protein Dronpa. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 102:9511–9516 Hill A, Bloom K (1989) Acquisition and processing of a conditional dicentric chromosome in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol Cell Biol 9:1368–1370 Hliscs R, Muhlig P, Claussen U (1997) The nature of G-bands analyzed by chromosome stretching. Cytogenet Cell Genet 79:162–166 Houchmandzadeh B, Dimitrov S (1999) Elasticity measurements show the existence of thin rigid cores inside mitotic chromosomes. J Cell Biol 145:215–223 Huang B, Wang W, Bates M, Zhuang X (2008) Three-dimensional super-resolution imaging by stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy. Science 319:810–813 Kaitna S, Pasierbek P, Jantsch M, Loidl J, Glotzer M (2002) The aurora B kinase AIR-2 regulates kinetochores during mitosis and is required for separation of homologous chromosomes during meiosis. Curr Biol 12:798–812 Kanda T, Sullivan KF, Wahl GM (1998) Histone-GFP fusion protein enables sensitive analysis of chromosome dynamics in living mammalian cells. Curr Biol 8:377–385 Kireeva N, Lakonishok M, Kireev I, Hirano T, Belmont AS (2004) Visualization of early chromosome condensation: a hierarchical folding, axial glue model of chromosome structure. J Cell Biol 166:775–785 Kuroiwa T, Kojima H, Miyakawa I, Sando N (1984) Meiotic karyotype of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Exp Cell Res 153:259–65 Lavoie BD, Hogan E, Koshland D (2004) In vivo requirements for rDNA chromosome condensation reveal two cell-cycle-regulated pathways for mitotic chromosome folding. Genes Dev 18:76–87 Li X, Nicklas RB (1995) Mitotic forces control a cell-cycle checkpoint. Nature 373:630–632 Machin F, Torres-Rosell J, Jarmuz A, Aragon L (2005) Spindle-independent condensation-mediated segregation of yeast ribosomal DNA in late anaphase. J Cell Biol 168:209–219 Manders EM, Kimura H, Cook PR (1999) Direct imaging of DNA in living cells reveals the dynamics of chromosome formation. J Cell Biol 144:813–821 Marko JF (2008) Micromechanical studies of mitotic chromosomes. Chromosome Res 16:469–497 Marshall WF, Marko JF, Agard DA, Sedat JW (2001) Chromosome elasticity and mitotic polar ejection force measured in living Drosophila embryos by four-dimensional microscopy-based motion analysis. Curr Biol 11:569–578 Matsuda T, Miyawaki A, Nagai T (2008) Direct measurement of protein dynamics inside cells using a rationally designed photoconvertible protein. Nat Methods 5:339–345 Michaelis C, Ciosk R, Nasmyth K (1997) Cohesins: chromosomal proteins that prevent premature separation of sister chromatids. Cell 91:35–45 Mikhailov A, Shinohara M, Rieder CL (2004) Topoisomerase II and histone deacetylase inhibitors delay the G2/M transition by triggering the p38 MAPK checkpoint pathway. J Cell Biol 166:517–526 Mo YY, Ameiss KA, Beck WT (1998) Overexpression of human DNA topoisomerase II alpha by fusion to enhanced green fluorescent protein. Biotechniques 25:1052–1057 Mora-Bermudez F, Ellenberg J (2007) Measuring structural dynamics of chromosomes in living cells by fluorescence microscopy. Methods 41:158–167 Mora-Bermudez F, Gerlich D, Ellenberg J (2007) Maximal chromosome compaction occurs by axial shortening in anaphase and depends on Aurora kinase. Nat Cell Biol 9:822–831 Nicklas RB (1963) A quantitative study of chromosomal elasticity and its influence on chromosome movement. Chromosoma 14:276–295 Nicklas RB (1983) Measurements of the force produced by the mitotic spindle in anaphase. J Cell Biol 97:542–548 Oliveira RA, Coelho PA, Sunkel CE (2005) The condensin I subunit Barren/CAP-H is essential for the structural integrity of centromeric heterochromatin during mitosis. Mol Cell Biol 25:8971–8984 Patterson GH, Lippincott-Schwartz J (2002) A photoactivatable GFP for selective photolabeling of proteins and cells. Science 297:1873–1877 Pearson CG, Maddox PS, Salmon ED, Bloom K (2001) Budding yeast chromosome structure and dynamics during mitosis. J Cell Biol 152:1255–1266 Poirier MG, Marko JF (2002) Mitotic chromosomes are chromatin networks without a mechanically contiguous protein scaffold. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99:15393–15397 Poirier MG, Marko JF (2003) Micromechanical studies of mitotic chromosomes. Curr Top Dev Biol 55:75–141 Poirier M, Eroglu S, Chatenay D, Marko JF (2000) Reversible and irreversible unfolding of mitotic newt chromosomes by applied force. Mol Biol Cell 11:269–276 Poirier MG, Eroglu S, Marko JF (2002) The bending rigidity of mitotic chromosomes. Mol Biol Cell 13:2170–2179 Robinett CC, Straight A, Li G et al (1996) In vivo localization of DNA sequences and visualization of large-scale chromatin organization using lac operator/repressor recognition. J Cell Biol 135:1685–1700 Rohner S, Gasser SM, Meister P (2008) Modules for cloning-free chromatin tagging in Saccharomyces cerevisae. Yeast 25:235–239 Sarkar A, Eroglu S, Poirier MG, Gupta P, Nemani A, Marko JF (2002) Dynamics of chromosome compaction during mitosis. Exp Cell Res 277:48–56 Schermelleh L, Carlton PM, Haase S et al (2008) Subdiffraction multicolor imaging of the nuclear periphery with 3D structured illumination microscopy. Science 320:1332–1336 Scherthan H, Loidl J, Schuster T, Schweizer D (1992) Meiotic chromosome condensation and pairing in Saccharomyces cerevisiae studied by chromosome painting. Chromosoma 101:590–595 Shelby RD, Hahn KM, Sullivan KF (1996) Dynamic elastic behavior of alpha-satellite DNA domains visualized in situ in living human cells. J Cell Biol 135:545–557 Straight AF, Belmont AS, Robinett CC, Murray AW (1996) GFP tagging of budding yeast chromosomes reveals that protein-protein interactions can mediate sister chromatid cohesion. Curr Biol 6:1599–1608 Strukov YG, Wang Y, Belmont AS (2003) Engineered chromosome regions with altered sequence composition demonstrate hierarchical large-scale folding within metaphase chromosomes. J Cell Biol 162:23–35 Sullivan M, Higuchi T, Katis VL, Uhlmann F (2004) Cdc14 phosphatase induces rDNA condensation and resolves cohesin-independent cohesion during budding yeast anaphase. Cell 117:471–482 Swedlow JR, Hirano T (2003) The making of the mitotic chromosome: modern insights into classical questions. Mol Cell 11:557–569 Thrower DA, Bloom K (2001) Dicentric chromosome stretching during anaphase reveals roles of Sir2/Ku in chromatin compaction in budding yeast. Mol Biol Cell 12:2800–2812 Toda T, Yamamoto M, Yanagida M (1981) Sequential alterations in the nuclear chromatin region during mitosis of the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe: video fluorescence microscopy of synchronously growing wild-type and cold-sensitive cdc mutants by using a DNA-binding fluorescent probe. J Cell Sci 52:271–287 Uemura T, Ohkura H, Adachi Y, Morino K, Shiozaki K, Yanagida M (1987) DNA topoisomerase II is required for condensation and separation of mitotic chromosomes in S pombe. Cell 50:917–925 Vas AC, Andrews CA, Kirkland Matesky K, Clarke DJ (2007) In vivo analysis of chromosome condensation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol Biol Cell 18:557–568 Walter J, Schermelleh L, Cremer M, Tashiro S, Cremer T (2003) Chromosome order in HeLa cells changes during mitosis and early G1, but is stably maintained during subsequent interphase stages. J Cell Biol 160:685–697 Westphal V, Rizzoli SO, Lauterbach MA, Kamin D, Jahn R, Hell SW (2008) Video-rate far-field optical nanoscopy dissects synaptic vesicle movement. Science 320:246–249 Wiedenmann J, Ivanchenko S, Oswald F et al (2004) EosFP, a fluorescent marker protein with UV-inducible green-to-red fluorescence conversion. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 101:15905–15910 Win TZ, Goodwin A, Hickson ID, Norbury CJ, Wang SW (2004) Requirement for Schizosaccharomyces pombe Top3 in the maintenance of chromosome integrity. J Cell Sci 117:4769–4778