Arrhythmia detection and classification using ECG and PPG techniques: a review

. Neha1, Harish Kumar Sardana1, R Kanwade1, Suman Tewary2
1Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, Uttar Pradesh, India
2Central Scientific Instruments Organisation, Chandigarh 160030, India

Tóm tắt

Từ khóa


Tài liệu tham khảo

Kaptoge S, Pennells L, De Bacquer D, Cooney MT, Kavousi M, Stevens G et al (2019) World Health Organization cardiovascular disease risk charts: revised models to estimate risk in 21 global regions. Lancet Glob Health 7(10):e1332–e1345

Salam KA, Srilakshmi G (eds.) (2015) An algorithm for ECG analysis of arrhythmia detection. In: 2015 IEEE International Conference on Electrical, Computer and Communication Technologies (ICECCT). IEEE

Kléber AG, Rudy Y (2004) Basic mechanisms of cardiac impulse propagation and associated arrhythmias. Physiol Rev 84(2):431–488

Sayadi O, Shamsollahi MB (2011) Life-threatening arrhythmia verification in ICU patients using the joint cardiovascular dynamical model and a Bayesian filter. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 58(10):2748

Richards KJ, Cohen AT (2006) Types of arrhythmia. Anaesth Intensive Care Med 8(7):289–293

Lim Y, Singh D, Poh KK (2018) High-grade atrioventricular block. Singap Med J 59(7):346

Jazayeri M-A, Jazayeri MM-R (2018) Conduction disturbances: sinus node disease/sick sinus syndrome, AV conduction disturbances, AV blocks, bundle branch blocks, and fascicular blocks. ECG masters’ collection: favorite ECGs from master teachers around the world, vol 2. Cardiotext Pubblishing, Minneapolis

Fischer C, Dömer B, Wibmer T, Penzel T (2017) An algorithm for real-time pulse waveform segmentation and artifact detection in photoplethysmograms. IEEE J Biomed Health Inform 21(2):372–381

Biel L, Pettersson O, Philipson L, Wide P (2001) ECG analysis: a new approach in human identification. IEEE Trans Instrum Meas 50(3):808–812

Kanawade R, Klämpfl F, Riemann M, Knipfer C, Tangermann-Gerk K, Schmidt M et al (2014) Novel method for early signs of clinical shock detection by monitoring blood capillary/vessel spatial pattern. J Biophoton 7(10):841–849

Wang L, Lo BP, Yang G-Z (2007) Multichannel reflective PPG earpiece sensor with passive motion cancellation. IEEE Trans Biomed Circuits Syst 1(4):235–241

Tamura T, Maeda Y, Sekine M, Yoshida M (2014) Wearable photoplethysmographic sensors—past and present. Electronics 3(2):282–302

Suzuki T, Kameyama K-i, Tamura T (eds.) (2009) Development of the irregular pulse detection method in daily life using wearable photoplethysmographic sensor. In: 2009 EMBC 2009 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. IEEE

Xie L, Li Z, Zhou Y, He Y, Zhu J (2020) Computational diagnostic techniques for electrocardiogram signal analysis. Sensors 20(21):6318

Sevakula RK, Au-Yeung WTM, Singh JP, Heist EK, Isselbacher EM, Armoundas AA (2020) State-of-the-art machine learning techniques aiming to improve patient outcomes pertaining to the cardiovascular system. J Am Heart Assoc 9(4):e013924

Murat F, Yildirim O, Talo M, Baloglu UB, Demir Y, Acharya UR (2020) Application of deep learning techniques for heartbeats detection using ECG signals-analysis and review. Comput Biol Med 120:103726

Kooman JP, Wieringa FP, Han M, Chaudhuri S, van der Sande FM, Usvyat LA et al (2020) Wearable health devices and personal area networks: can they improve outcomes in haemodialysis patients? Nephrol Dial Transplant 35(Supplement_2):ii43–ii50

Hong S, Zhou Y, Shang J, Xiao C, Sun J (2020) Opportunities and challenges of deep learning methods for electrocardiogram data: a systematic review. Comput Biol Med 2020:103801

Luz EJDS, Schwartz WR, Cámara-Chávez G, Menotti D (2016) ECG-based heartbeat classification for arrhythmia detection: a survey. Comput Methods Programs Biomed 127:144–164

Castaneda D, Esparza A, Ghamari M, Soltanpur C, Nazeran H (2018) A review on wearable photoplethysmography sensors and their potential future applications in health care. Int J Biosens Bioelectron 4(4):195

El-Hajj C, Kyriacou PA (2020) A review of machine learning techniques in photoplethysmography for the non-invasive cuff-less measurement of blood pressure. Biomed Signal Process Control 58:101870

Moody GB, Mark RG (2001) The impact of the MIT-BIH arrhythmia database. IEEE Eng Med Biol Mag 20(3):45–50

Saeed M, Villarroel M, Reisner AT, Clifford G, Lehman L-W, Moody G et al (2011) Multiparameter intelligent monitoring in intensive care II (MIMIC-II): a public-access intensive care unit database. Crit Care Med 39(5):952

Goldberger AL, Amaral LA, Glass L, Hausdorff JM, Ivanov PC, Mark RG et al (2000) PhysioBank, PhysioToolkit, and PhysioNet: components of a new research resource for complex physiologic signals. Circulation 101(23):e215–e220

Fuster V, Rydén LE, Cannom DS, Crijns HJ, Curtis AB, Ellenbogen KA et al (2006) ACC/AHA/ESC 2006 guidelines for the management of patients with atrial fibrillation: full text: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on practice guidelines and the European Society of Cardiology Committee for Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Revise the 2001 guidelines for the management of patients with atrial fibrillation) developed in collaboration with the European Heart Rhythm Association and the Heart Rhythm Society. Europace 8(9):651–745

Zheng J, Zhang J, Danioko S, Yao H, Guo H, Rakovski C (2020) A 12-lead electrocardiogram database for arrhythmia research covering more than 10,000 patients. Sci Data 7(1):1–8

Taddei A, Distante G, Emdin M, Pisani P, Moody G, Zeelenberg C et al (1992) The European ST-T database: standard for evaluating systems for the analysis of ST-T changes in ambulatory electrocardiography. Eur Heart J 13(9):1164–1172

Sun Y, Chan KL, Krishnan SM (2002) ECG signal conditioning by morphological filtering. Comput Biol Med 32(6):465–479

Kiranyaz S, Ince T, Gabbouj M (2016) Real-time patient-specific ECG classification by 1-D convolutional neural networks. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 63(3):664–675

De Chazal P (ed.) (2014) Heartbeat classification system using adaptive learning from selected beats. In: Computing in Cardiology Conference (CinC). IEEE

Ye C, Kumar BV, Coimbra MT (2012) Heartbeat classification using morphological and dynamic features of ECG signals. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 59(10):2930–2941

Daamouche A, Hamami L, Alajlan N, Melgani F (2012) A wavelet optimization approach for ECG signal classification. Biomed Signal Process Control 7(4):342–349

Thomas M, Das MK, Ari S (2015) Automatic ECG arrhythmia classification using dual tree complex wavelet based features. AEU Int J Electron Commun 69(4):715–721

Lu J, Jia H, Verma N, Jha NK (2018) Genetic programming for energy-efficient and energy-scalable approximate feature computation in embedded inference systems. IEEE Trans Comput 67(2):222–236

Saini I, Singh D, Khosla A (2013) QRS detection using K-Nearest Neighbor algorithm (KNN) and evaluation on standard ECG databases. J Adv Res 4(4):331–344

Bayasi N, Tekeste T, Saleh H, Mohammad B, Khandoker A, Ismail M (2016) Low-power ECG-based processor for predicting ventricular arrhythmia. IEEE TransVery Large Scale Integr Syst 24(5):1962–1974

Kim H, Yazicioglu RF, Merken P, Van Hoof C, Yoo H-J (2010) ECG signal compression and classification algorithm with quad level vector for ECG holter system. IEEE Trans Inf Technol Biomed 14(1):93–100

Chen H, Cheng B-C, Liao G-T, Kuo T-C (2014) Hybrid classification engine for cardiac arrhythmia cloud service in elderly healthcare management. J Vis Lang Comput 25(6):745–753

De Lannoy G, François D, Delbeke J, Verleysen M (2012) Weighted conditional random fields for supervised interpatient heartbeat classification. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 59(1):241–247

Rai HM, Trivedi A, Shukla S (2013) ECG signal processing for abnormalities detection using multi-resolution wavelet transform and artificial neural network classifier. Measurement 46(9):3238–3246

Kutlu Y, Kuntalp D (2012) Feature extraction for ECG heartbeats using higher order statistics of WPD coefficients. Comput Methods Programs Biomed 105(3):257–267

Javadi M, Arani SAAA, Sajedin A, Ebrahimpour R (2013) Classification of ECG arrhythmia by a modular neural network based on mixture of experts and negatively correlated learning. Biomed Signal Process Control 8(3):289–296

Elhaj FA, Salim N, Harris AR, Swee TT, Ahmed T (2016) Arrhythmia recognition and classification using combined linear and nonlinear features of ECG signals. Comput Methods Programs Biomed 127:52–63

Elgendi M, Fletcher R, Liang Y, Howard N, Lovell NH, Abbott D et al (2019) The use of photoplethysmography for assessing hypertension. NPJ Digit Med 2(1):1–11

Lee J, McManus DD, Merchant S, Chon KH (2012) Automatic motion and noise artifact detection in holter ECG data using empirical mode decomposition and statistical approaches. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 59(6):1499–1506

Vijaya V, Rao KK, Rama V (2011) Arrhythmia detection through ECG feature extraction using wavelet analysis. Eur J Sci Res 66(3):441–448

Homaeinezhad MR, Atyabi S, Tavakkoli E, Toosi HN, Ghaffari A, Ebrahimpour R (2012) ECG arrhythmia recognition via a neuro-SVM–KNN hybrid classifier with virtual QRS image-based geometrical features. Expert Syst Appl 39(2):2047–2058

Tuncer T, Dogan S, Pławiak P, Acharya UR (2019) Automated arrhythmia detection using novel hexadecimal local pattern and multilevel wavelet transform with ECG signals. Knowl Based Syst 186:104923

Mert A, Kılıç N, Akan A (2014) Evaluation of bagging ensemble method with time-domain feature extraction for diagnosing of arrhythmia beats. Neural Comput Appl 24(2):317–326

Isin A, Ozdalili S (2017) Cardiac arrhythmia detection using deep learning. Procedia Comput Sci 120:268–275

Zeraatkar E, Kermani S, Mehridehnavi A, Aminzadeh A, Zeraatkar E, Sanei H (2011) Arrhythmia detection based on morphological and time-frequency features of t-wave in electrocardiogram. J Med Signals Sens 1(2):99

Sayadi O, Shamsollahi MB (2009) A model-based Bayesian framework for ECG beat segmentation. Physiol Meas 30(3):335

Özbay Y (2009) A new approach to detection of ECG arrhythmias: complex discrete wavelet transform based complex valued artificial neural network. J Med Syst 33(6):435

Yu S-N, Chou K-T (2009) Selection of significant independent components for ECG beat classification. Expert Syst Appl 36(2):2088–2096

Fira CM, Goras L (2008) An ECG signals compression method and its validation using NNs. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 55(4):1319–1326

Lee S, Kim J, Lee M (2011) A real-time ECG data compression and transmission algorithm for an e-health device. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 58(9):2448–2455

Özbay Y, Ceylan R, Karlik B (2006) A fuzzy clustering neural network architecture for classification of ECG arrhythmias. Comput Biol Med 36(4):376–388

Korürek M, Nizam A (2008) A new arrhythmia clustering technique based on ant colony optimization. J Biomed Inform 41(6):874–881

Yaghouby F, Ayatollahi A, Bahramali R, Yaghouby M, Alavi AH (2010) Towards automatic detection of atrial fibrillation: a hybrid computational approach. Comput Biol Med 40(11–12):919–930

Sahab A, Gilmalek YM (2011) An automatic diagnostic machine for ECG arrhythmias classification based on wavelet transformation and neural networks. Int J Circuits Syst Signal Process 5(3):255–262

Shen C-P, Kao W-C, Yang Y-Y, Hsu M-C, Wu Y-T, Lai F (2012) Detection of cardiac arrhythmia in electrocardiograms using adaptive feature extraction and modified support vector machines. Expert Syst Appl 39(9):7845–7852

Llamedo M, Martínez JP (2011) Heartbeat classification using feature selection driven by database generalization criteria. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 58(3):616–625

Faezipour M, Saeed A, Bulusu SC, Nourani M, Minn H, Tamil L (2010) A patient-adaptive profiling scheme for ECG beat classification. IEEE Trans Inf Technol Biomed 14(5):1153–1165

Pławiak P (2018) Novel methodology of cardiac health recognition based on ECG signals and evolutionary-neural system. Expert Syst Appl 92:334–349

Hong S, Zhou Y, Wu M, Shang J, Wang Q, Li H et al (2019) Combining deep neural networks and engineered features for cardiac arrhythmia detection from ECG recordings. Physiol Meas 40(5):054009

Zhang J, Liu A, Gao M, Chen X, Zhang X, Chen X (2020) ECG-based multi-class arrhythmia detection using spatio-temporal attention-based convolutional recurrent neural network. Artif Intell Med 106:101856

Liu C-M, Chang S-L, Yeh Y-H, Chung F-P, Hu Y-F, Chou C-C et al (2021) Enhanced detection of cardiac arrhythmias utilizing 14-day continuous ECG patch monitoring. Int J Cardiol 332:78–84

Asl BM, Setarehdan SK, Mohebbi M (2008) Support vector machine-based arrhythmia classification using reduced features of heart rate variability signal. Artif Intell Med 44(1):51–64

Castells F, Laguna P, Sörnmo L, Bollmann A, Roig JM (2007) Principal component analysis in ECG signal processing. EURASIP J Adv Signal Proces 2007(1):074580

Chen Z, Luo J, Lin K, Wu J, Zhu T, Xiang X et al (2018) An energy-efficient ecg processor with weak-strong hybrid classifier for arrhythmia detection. IEEE Trans Circuits Syst II Express Briefs 65(7):948–952

De Lannoy G, François D, Delbeke J, Verleysen M (2010) Weighted SVMs and feature relevance assessment in supervised heart beat classification. International joint conference on biomedical engineering systems and technologies. Springer, Heidelberg

Al Rahhal MM, Bazi Y, AlHichri H, Alajlan N, Melgani F, Yager RR (2016) Deep learning approach for active classification of electrocardiogram signals. Inf Sci 345:340–354

Oresko JJ, Jin Z, Cheng J, Huang S, Sun Y, Duschl H et al (2010) A wearable smartphone-based platform for real-time cardiovascular disease detection via electrocardiogram processing. IEEE Trans Inf Technol Biomed 14(3):734–740

Zhang X, Li J, Cai Z, Zhang L, Chen Z, Liu C (2021) Over-fitting suppression training strategies for deep learning-based atrial fibrillation detection. Med Biol Eng Comput 59:1–9

Vafaie M, Ataei M, Koofigar HR (2014) Heart diseases prediction based on ECG signals’ classification using a genetic-fuzzy system and dynamical model of ECG signals. Biomed Signal Process Control 14:291–296

Özbay Y, Ceylan R, Karlik B (2011) Integration of type-2 fuzzy clustering and wavelet transform in a neural network based ECG classifier. Expert Syst Appl 38(1):1004–1010

Zhang Z, Luo X (2014) Heartbeat classification using decision level fusion. Biomed Eng Lett 4(4):388–395

Alfaras M, Soriano MC, Ortín S (2019) A fast machine learning model for ECG-based heartbeat classification and arrhythmia detection. Front Phys 7:103

Ullah A, Tu S, Mehmood RM, Ehatisham-ul-haq M (2021) A hybrid deep CNN model for abnormal arrhythmia detection based on cardiac ECG signal. Sensors 21(3):951

Jiang W, Kong SG (2007) Block-based neural networks for personalized ECG signal classification. IEEE Trans Neural Netw 18(6):1750–1761

Llamedo M, Martínez JP (2012) An automatic patient-adapted ECG heartbeat classifier allowing expert assistance. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 59(8):2312–2320

Chua TW, Tan WW (2011) Non-singleton genetic fuzzy logic system for arrhythmias classification. Eng Appl Artif Intell 24(2):251–259

Jadhav SM, Nalbalwar SL, Ghatol AA (2011) Modular neural network based arrhythmia classification system using ECG signal data. Int J Inform Technol Knowl Manage 4(1):205–209

Krizhevsky A, Sutskever I, Hinton GE (2012) Imagenet classification with deep convolutional neural networks. Adv Neural Inform Process Syst 25:1097

Acharya UR, Fujita H, Lih OS, Hagiwara Y, Tan JH, Adam M (2017) Automated detection of arrhythmias using different intervals of tachycardia ECG segments with convolutional neural network. Inf Sci 405:81–90

Mar T, Zaunseder S, Martínez JP, Llamedo M, Poll R (2011) Optimization of ECG classification by means of feature selection. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 58(8):2168–2177

Melgani F, Bazi Y (2008) Classification of electrocardiogram signals with support vector machines and particle swarm optimization. IEEE Trans Inf Technol Biomed 12(5):667–677

Sološenko A, Petrėnas A, Marozas V (2015) Photoplethysmography-based method for automatic detection of premature ventricular contractions. IEEE Trans Biomed Circuits Syst 9(5):662–669

Paradkar N, Chowdhury SR (eds.) (2017) Cardiac arrhythmia detection using photoplethysmography. In: 2017 39th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC). IEEE

Elgendi M (2014) Detection of c, d, and e waves in the acceleration photoplethysmogram. Comput Methods Programs Biomed 117(2):125–136

Poh M-Z, McDuff DJ, Picard RW (2011) Advancements in noncontact, multiparameter physiological measurements using a webcam. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 58(1):7–11

Zhang Z (ed.) (2014) Heart rate monitoring from wrist-type photoplethysmographic (PPG) signals during intensive physical exercise., In: 2014 IEEE Global Conference on Signal and Information Processing (GlobalSIP). IEEE

Solosenko A, Marozas V (2014) Automatic extrasystole detection using photoplethysmographic signals. XIII mediterranean conference on medical and biological engineering and computing 2013. Springer, Cham

Poh M-Z, Swenson NC, Picard RW (2010) Motion-tolerant magnetic earring sensor and wireless earpiece for wearable photoplethysmography. IEEE Trans Inf Technol Biomed 14:786

Patterson JA, Yang G-Z (2011) Ratiometric artifact reduction in low power reflective photoplethysmography. IEEE Trans Biomed Circuits Syst 5(4):330–338

Bhowmik T, Dey J, Tiwari VN (eds.) (2017) A novel method for accurate estimation of HRV from smartwatch PPG signals. In: 2017 39th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC). IEEE

Yousefi R, Nourani M, Ostadabbas S, Panahi I (2014) A motion-tolerant adaptive algorithm for wearable photoplethysmographic biosensors. IEEE J Biomed Health Inform 18(2):670–681

Fukushima H, Kawanaka H, Bhuiyan MS, Oguri K (eds.) (2012) Estimating heart rate using wrist-type photoplethysmography and acceleration sensor while running. In: 2012 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC). IEEE

Lee B, Han J, Baek HJ, Shin JH, Park KS, Yi WJ (2010) Improved elimination of motion artifacts from a photoplethysmographic signal using a Kalman smoother with simultaneous accelerometry. Physiol Meas 31(12):1585

Elgendi M (2012) On the analysis of fingertip photoplethysmogram signals. Curr Cardiol Rev 8(1):14–25

Chong JW, Esa N, McManus DD, Chon KH (2015) Arrhythmia discrimination using a smart phone. IEEE J Biomed Health Inform 19(3):815–824

Lee J, Reyes BA, McManus DD, Maitas O, Chon KH (2013) Atrial fibrillation detection using an iPhone 4S. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 60(1):203–206

Scully CG, Lee J, Meyer J, Gorbach AM, Granquist-Fraser D, Mendelson Y et al (2012) Physiological parameter monitoring from optical recordings with a mobile phone. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 59(2):303–306

Poh M-Z, McDuff DJ, Picard RW (2010) Non-contact, automated cardiac pulse measurements using video imaging and blind source separation. Opt Express 18(10):10762–10774

Shin HS, Lee C, Lee M (2009) Adaptive threshold method for the peak detection of photoplethysmographic waveform. Comput Biol Med 39(12):1145–1152

Doostdar H, Khalilzadeh M (2014) Quantification the effect of ageing on characteristics of the photoplethysmogram using an optimized windkessel model. J Biomed Phys Eng 4(3):103

Sološenko A, Petrėnas A, Marozas V, Sörnmo L (2017) Modeling of the photoplethysmogram during atrial fibrillation. Comput Biol Med 81:130–138

Li X, Chen J, Zhao G, Pietikainen M (eds.) (2014) Remote heart rate measurement from face videos under realistic situations. In: Proceedings of the IEEE conference on computer vision and pattern recognition

Lam A, Kuno Y (eds.) (2015) Robust heart rate measurement from video using select random patches. In: Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision

Balakrishnan G, Durand F, Guttag J (eds.) (2013) Detecting pulse from head motions in video. In: Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition

Tulyakov S, Alameda-Pineda X, Ricci E, Yin L, Cohn JF, Sebe N (eds.) (2016) Self-adaptive matrix completion for heart rate estimation from face videos under realistic conditions. In: Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition

Zhang Z (2015) Photoplethysmography-based heart rate monitoring in physical activities via joint sparse spectrum reconstruction. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 62(8):1902–1910

Zhang Z, Pi Z, Liu B (2015) TROIKA: a general framework for heart rate monitoring using wrist-type photoplethysmographic signals during intensive physical exercise. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 62(2):522–531

Bashar SK, Han D, Hajeb-Mohammadalipour S, Ding E, Whitcomb C, McManus DD et al (2019) Atrial fibrillation detection from wrist photoplethysmography signals using smartwatches. Sci Rep 9(1):1–10

Eerikäinen LM, Bonomi AG, Schipper F, Dekker L, de Morree HM, Vullings R et al (2019) Detecting atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter in daily life using photoplethysmography data. IEEE J Biomed Health Inform 24:1610

Väliaho E-S, Kuoppa P, Lipponen JA, Hartikainen JE, Jäntti H, Rissanen TT et al (2021) Wrist band photoplethysmography autocorrelation analysis enables detection of atrial fibrillation without pulse detection. Front Physiol. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2021.654555

Parak J, Korhonen I (eds.) (2014) Evaluation of wearable consumer heart rate monitors based on photopletysmography. In: 2014 36th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC). IEEE

Gil E, Laguna P, Martínez JP, Barquero-Pérez O, García-Alberola A, Sörnmo L (2013) Heart rate turbulence analysis based on photoplethysmography. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 60(11):3149–3155

Aschbacher K, Yilmaz D, Kerem Y, Crawford S, Benaron D, Liu J et al (2020) Atrial fibrillation detection from raw photoplethysmography waveforms: a deep learning application. Heart Rhythm O2 1(1):3–9

Gothwal H, Kedawat S, Kumar R (2011) Cardiac arrhythmias detection in an ECG beat signal using fast fourier transform and artificial neural network. J Biomed Sci Eng 4(04):289

Pławiak P, Acharya UR (2020) Novel deep genetic ensemble of classifiers for arrhythmia detection using ECG signals. Neural Comput Appl 32(15):11137–11161

Mahri N, Gan KB, Meswari R, Jaafar MH, Mohd Ali MA (2017) Utilization of second derivative photoplethysmographic features for myocardial infarction classification. J Med Eng Technol 41(4):298–308

Chakraborty A, Sadhukhan D, Pal S, Mitra M (2020) Automated myocardial infarction identification based on interbeat variability analysis of the photoplethysmographic data. Biomed Signal Process Control 57:101747

Pilt K, Ferenets R, Meigas K, Lindberg L-G, Temitski K, Viigimaa M (2013) New photoplethysmographic signal analysis algorithm for arterial stiffness estimation. Sci World J 2013:1

Singh T, Bing R, Dweck MR, van Beek EJ, Mills NL, Williams MC et al (2020) Exercise electrocardiography and computed tomography coronary angiography for patients with suspected stable angina pectoris: a post hoc analysis of the randomized SCOT-HEART trial. JAMA Cardiol 5(8):920–928