Are we in this together? Changes in anti-immigrant sentiments during the COVID-19 pandemic

Adam-Troian, 2021, The pathogen paradox: Evidence that perceived COVID-19 threat is associated with both pro-and anti-immigrant attitudes, International Review of Social Psychology, 34, 1, 10.5334/irsp.469 Allison, 1990, Change scores as dependent variables in regression analysis, Sociological Methodology, 20, 93, 10.2307/271083 Allport, 1954 Andreescu, 2017, A multilevel analysis of anti-immigrant sentiments in France, Journal of Identity & Migration Studies, 11, 65 Andrighetto, 2016, Inside the earthquake: Perceived disaster exposure and helping intentions among Italian and immigrant victims of the 2012 Italian earthquakes, Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 19, 753, 10.1177/1368430215591040 Bakker, 2020, Wat klopt er van de vooroordelen over Noord- en Zuid-Europa?, De Volkskrant Billiet, 2014, The relationship between ethnic threat and economic insecurity in times of economic crisis: Analysis of European Social Survey data, Migration Studies, 2, 135, 10.1093/migration/mnu023 Blumer, 1958, Race prejudice as a sense of group position, Pacific Sociological Review, 1, 3, 10.2307/1388607 Bobo, 1983, Whites’ opposition to busing: Symbolic racism or realistic group conflict?, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 1196, 10.1037/0022-3514.45.6.1196 Bobo, 1999, Prejudice as group position: Microfoundations of a sociological approach to racism and race relations, Journal of Social Issues, 55, 445, 10.1111/0022-4537.00127 Branscombe, 1999, The context and content of social identity threats, 35 Braveman, 2010, Socioeconomic disparities in health in the United States: What the patterns tell us, American Journal of Public Health, 100, S186, 10.2105/AJPH.2009.166082 Ceobanu, 2008, East is West? National feelings and anti-immigrant sentiment in Europe, Social Science Research, 37, 1147, 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2008.01.002 De Jaegher, 2021, Common‐enemy effects: Multidisciplinary antecedents and economic perspectives, Journal of Economic Surveys, 35, 3, 10.1111/joes.12394 Dekker, 2020 Dennison, 2020 Dovidio, 2008, Another view of “we”: Majority and minority group perspectives on a common ingroup identity, European Review of Social Psychology, 18, 296, 10.1080/10463280701726132 Dutch Government, 2020 Dutch Government, 2020 Drury, 2012, Collective resilience in mass emergencies and disasters: A social identity model, 195 CentERdata. (2020). European Values Study 2020 extra. LISS Panel Data Archive [Database]. https://www.lissdata.nl/. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 2020 Echebarria‐Echabe, 2006, Effects of terrorism on attitudes and ideological orientation, European Journal of Social Psychology, 36, 259, 10.1002/ejsp.294 EVS (2020): European Values Study 2017: Integrated Dataset (EVS 2017). GESIS Data Archive, Cologne. ZA7500 Data file Version 3.0.0, https://doi.org/10.4232/1.13511. Gaertner, 2000 Greenberg, 1986, The causes and consequences of a need for self-esteem: A terror management theory, 189 Greenberg, 2008, Terror management theory: Implications for understanding prejudice, stereotyping, intergroup conflict, and political attitudes, Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2, 1881, 10.1111/j.1751-9004.2008.00144.x Hair, 2010 Hammonds, 2020, "We are not heroes because it is not a choice”: A Survey of Essential Workers’ Safety and Security During COVID-19 Hjerm, 1998, National identities, national pride and xenophobia: A comparison of four Western countries, Acta Sociologica, 41, 335, 10.1177/000169939804100403 Hjerm, 2001, Education, xenophobia and nationalism: A comparative analysis, Journal of ethnic and Migration Studies, 27, 37, 10.1080/13691830124482 Inglehart, R., & Norris, P. (2016). Trump, Brexit, and the rise of populism: Economic have-nots and cultural backlash (HKS Faculty Research Working Paper No. RWP16-026). Retrieved from the HKS Faculty Research Working Paper Series website: 〈https://research.hks.harvard.edu/ publications/workingpapers/Index.aspx〉. Kinder, 1981, Prejudice and politics: Symbolic racism versus racial threats to the good life, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 414, 10.1037/0022-3514.40.3.414 Knudsen, 1997, Scandinavian neighbours with different character? Attitudes toward immigrants and national identity in Norway and Sweden, Acta Sociologica, 40, 223, 10.1177/000169939704000301 LeVine, 1972 Luijkx, 2020, The European Values Study 2017: On the way to the future using mixed-modes, European Sociological Review, 1 Netherlands Chamber of Commerce (KVK), 2020 Pang, 2020, Potential rapid diagnostics, vaccine and therapeutics for 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV): A systematic review, Journal of Clinical Medicine, 9, 623, 10.3390/jcm9030623 Perlmutter, 2002, Minority group prejudice, Society, 39, 59, 10.1007/s12115-002-1019-z Pettigrew, 1982 Phua, 2020, Intensive care management of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): Challenges and recommendations, The Lancet Respiratory Medicine, 8, 506, 10.1016/S2213-2600(20)30161-2 Pyszczynski, 2021, Terror management theory and the COVID-19 pandemic, Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 61, 173, 10.1177/0022167820959488 Quillian, 1995, Prejudice as a response to perceived group threat: Population composition and anti-immigrant and racial prejudice in Europe, American Sociological Review, 60, 586, 10.2307/2096296 Rijksinstituut voor Volksgezondheid en Milieu (RIVM), 2020 Rijksinstituut voor Volksgezondheid en Milieu (RIVM), 2020 Reeskens, 2021, Stability or change of public opinion and values during the coronavirus crisis? Exploring Dutch longitudinal panel data, European Societies, 23, S153, 10.1080/14616696.2020.1821075 Scheepers, 2002, Ethnic exclusionism in European countries. Public opposition to civil rights for legal migrants as a response to perceived ethnic threat, European Sociological Review, 18, 17, 10.1093/esr/18.1.17 Schlueter, 2010, The relationship between outgroup size and anti-outgroup attitudes: A theoretical synthesis and empirical test of group threat-and intergroup contact theory, Social Science Research, 39, 285, 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2009.07.006 Schreiber, 2006, Reporting structural equation modeling and confirmatory factor analysis results: A review, The Journal of Educational Research, 99, 323, 10.3200/JOER.99.6.323-338 Sherif, 1966 Sorokowski, 2020, Can information about pandemics increase negative attitudes toward Foreign Groups? A case of COVID-19 outbreak, Sustainability, 12, 4912, 10.3390/su12124912 Statistics Netherlands (CBS). (2016a). Standaard onderwijsindeling (Editie 2016/’17). Retrieved from the CBS website: 〈https://www.cbs.nl/-/media/_pdf/2017/13/pubsoi2016ed1617.pdf〉. Statistics Netherlands (CBS). (2016b). Bevolking naar migratieachtergrond. Retrieved from the CBS website: 〈https://www.cbs.nl/nl-nl/achtergrond/2016/47/bevolking-naar-migratieachtergrond〉. Statistics Netherlands (CBS). (2020a). Hoeveel mensen met een migratieachtergrond wonen in Nederland? (Dossier asiel, migratie en integratie). Retrieved from the CBS website: 〈https://www.cbs.nl/nl-nl/dossier/dossier-asiel-migratie-en-integratie〉. Statistics Netherlands (CBS). (2020b). Economie groeit met 7,8 procent in derde kwartaal 2020. Retrieved from the CBS website: 〈https://www.cbs.nl/nl-nl/nieuws/2020/52/economie-groeit-met-7-8-procent-in-derde-kwartaal-2020〉. Stephan, 2009, Intergroup threat theory, 43 Strong, 1990, Epidemic psychology: a model, Sociology of Health & Illness, 12, 249, 10.1111/1467-9566.ep11347150 Tabri, N., Hollingshead, S., & Wohl, M. (2020). Framing covid-19 as an existential threat predicts anxious arousal and prejudice towards Chinese people. Retrieved from 〈https://psyarxiv.com/mpbtr/〉. Tajfel, 1986, The social identity theory of intergroup behavior, 7 Van Bavel, 2020, Using social and behavioural science to support COVID-19 pandemic response, Nature Human Behaviour, 4, 460, 10.1038/s41562-020-0884-z Van den Brink, 2020, Brabantse ziekenhuizen: we gaan plat en hebben hulp nodig, NOS Van Klingeren, 2015, Real world is not enough: The media as an additional source of negative attitudes toward immigration, comparing Denmark and the Netherlands, European Sociological Review, 31, 268, 10.1093/esr/jcu089 Vezzali, 2017, In the aftermath of natural disasters: Fostering helping toward outgroup victims, 305 Vollhardt, 2015, The role of inclusive and exclusive victim consciousness in predicting intergroup attitudes: Findings from R wanda, B urundi, and DRC, Political Psychology, 36, 489, 10.1111/pops.12174 Von der Burchard, 2020, Dutch try to calm north-south economic storm over coronavirus, Politico Wen, 2020, Effects of misleading media coverage on public health crisis: A case of the 2019 novel coronavirus outbreak in China, Anatolia, 31, 331, 10.1080/13032917.2020.1730621 World Bank, 2020 World Health Organization (WHO), 2020 World Health Organization (WHO), 2020 World Health Organization (WHO), 2020