Antimicrobial Resistance in the Chronically Critically Ill Patient

Clinics in Chest Medicine - Tập 22 - Trang 87-103 - 2001
Debra D. Poutsiaka

Tài liệu tham khảo

Afessa, 2000, Bacterial pneumonia in hospitalized patients with HIV infection: The pulmonary complications, ICU support, and prognostic factors of hospitalized patients with HIV (PIP) Study, Chest, 117, 1017, 10.1378/chest.117.4.1017 Akins, 2000, In vitro activities of daptomycin, arbekacin, vancomycin, and gentamicin alone and/or in combination against glycopeptide intermediate-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in an infection model, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 44, 1925, 10.1128/AAC.44.7.1925-1929.2000 Anonymous, 1997, Staphylococcus aureus with reduced susceptibility to vancomycin-United States, 1997, MMWR, 46, 765 Anonymous, 1997, Update: Staphylococcus aureus with reduced susceptibility to vancomycin-United States, 1997, MMWR, 46, 813 Aoun, 1994, A prospective, randomized study of pefloxacin versus teicoplanin in the treatment of gram-positive coccal infections in cancer patients: Early termination due to emergence of resistance to fluoroquinolones, Support Care Cancer, 2, 191, 10.1007/BF00417480 Archer, 2000, Staphylococcus epidermidis and other coagulase-negative staphylococci, 2092 Archibald, 1997, Antimicrobial resistance in isolates from inpatients and outpatients in the United States: Increasing importance of the intensive care unit, Clin Infect Dis, 24, 211, 10.1093/clinids/24.2.211 Ardanuy, 1998, Outer membrane profiles of clonally related Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates from clinical samples and activities of cephalosporins and carbapenems, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 42, 1636, 10.1128/AAC.42.7.1636 Arlet, 1991, Novel transferable extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (SHV-6) from Klebsiella pneumoniae conferring selective resistance to ceftazidime, FEMS Microbiol Lett, 65, 57 Arpin, 1996, Epidemiological study of an outbreak due to multidrug-resistant Enterobacter aerogenes in a medical intensive care unit, J Clin Microbiol, 34, 2163, 10.1128/JCM.34.9.2163-2169.1996 Arthur, 1993, Genetics and mechanisms of glycopeptide resistance in enterococci, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 37, 1563, 10.1128/AAC.37.8.1563 Bakken, 1987, Selective ceftazidime resistance in Escherichia coli: Association with changes in outer membrane protein, J Infect Dis, 155, 1220, 10.1093/infdis/155.6.1220 Bamberger, 1992, Impact of voluntary vs enforced compliance of third-generation cephalosporin use in a teaching hospital, Arch Intern Med, 152, 554, 10.1001/archinte.152.3.554 Baron, 1993, Pseudomonas aeruginosa bronchopulmonary infection in late human immunodeficiency virus disease, Am Rev Resp Dis, 148, 992, 10.1164/ajrccm/148.4_Pt_1.992 Barry, 1999, Antimicrobial resistance among clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae in North America, Am J Med, 107, 28S, 10.1016/S0002-9343(99)00102-3 Beezhold, 1997, Skin colonization with vancomycin-resistant enterococci among hospitalized patients with bacteremia, Clin Infect Dis, 24, 704, 10.1093/clind/24.4.704 Bhorade, 1999, The incidence of and clinical variables associated with vancomycin-resistant enterococcal colonization in mechanically ventilated patients, Chest, 115, 1085, 10.1378/chest.115.4.1085 Bisbe, 1988, Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteremia: Univariate and multivariate analyses of factors influencing the prognosis in 133 episodes, Rev Infect Dis, 10, 629, 10.1093/clinids/10.3.629 Bodey, 1988, Pseudomonas bacteremia. Retrospective analysis of 410 episodes, Arch Intern Med, 145, 1621, 10.1001/archinte.145.9.1621 Bonten, 1995, Colonization and infection with Enterococcus faecalis in intensive care units: The role of antimicrobial agents, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 39, 2783, 10.1128/AAC.39.12.2783 Boyce, 1994, Outbreak of multidrug-resistant Enterococcus faecium with transferable vanB class vancomycin resistance, J Clin Microbiol, 32, 1148, 10.1128/JCM.32.5.1148-1153.1994 Bradley, 1999, The control of hyperendemic glycopeptide-resistant Enterococcus spp. on a haematology unit by changing antibiotic usage, J Antimicrob Chemother, 43, 261, 10.1093/jac/43.2.261 Bross, 1989, Risk factors for nosocomial candidemia: A case-control study in adults without leukemia, Am J Med, 87, 614, 10.1016/S0002-9343(89)80392-4 Buchheidt, 2000, Systemic infections with Candida sp. and Aspergillus sp. in immunocompromised patients with hematological malignancies: Current serological and molecular diagnostic methods, Chemotherapy, 46, 219, 10.1159/000007283 Bullard, 1996, Diagnosis and treatment of bacteremia and intravascular catheter infections, Am J Surg, 172, 13S, 10.1016/S0002-9610(96)00345-5 Burwen, 1994, Ceftazidime resistance among selected nosocomial gram-negative bacilli in the United States. National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System, J Infect Dis, 170, 1622, 10.1093/infdis/170.6.1622 Carmeli, 1999, Health and economic outcomes of antibiotic resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Arch Intern Med, 159, 1127, 10.1001/archinte.159.10.1127 Cheng, 1996, Spread of beta-lactam-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa in a cystic fibrosis clinic [see comments], Lancet, 348, 639, 10.1016/S0140-6736(96)05169-0 Chien, 2000, Use of linezolid, an oxazolidinone, in the treatment of multidrug-resistant gram-positive bacterial infections, Clin Infect Dis, 30, 146, 10.1086/313597 Chirurgi, 1992, Nosocomial acquisition of beta-lactamase-negative, ampicillin-resistant enterococcus, Arch Intern Med, 152, 1457, 10.1001/archinte.152.7.1457 Chow, 1991, Enterobacter bacteremia: Clinical features and emergence of antibiotic resistance during therapy, Ann Int Med, 115, 585, 10.7326/0003-4819-115-8-585 Cohen, 1999, Activity of clinafloxacin, trovafloxacin, quinupristin/dalfopristin, and other antimicrobial agents versus Staphylococcus aureus isolates with reduced susceptibility to vancomycin, Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis, 33, 43, 10.1016/S0732-8893(98)00121-7 Colsky, 1998, Analysis of antibiotic susceptibilities of skin wound flora in hospitalized dermatology patients. The crisis of antibiotic resistance has come to the surface, Arch Derm, 134, 1006, 10.1001/archderm.134.8.1006 Crossley, 1979, An outbreak of infections caused by strains of Staphylococcus aureus resistant to methicillin and aminoglycosides. I. Clinical studies, J Infect Dis, 139, 273, 10.1093/infdis/139.3.273 D'Agata, 1998, The molecular and clinical epidemiology of enterobacteriaceae-producing extended-spectrum beta-lactamase in a tertiary case hospital, J Infect Dis, 36, 279 Daikos, 1990, Adaptive resistance to aminoglycoside antibiotics from first-exposure down-regulation, J Infect Dis, 162, 414, 10.1093/infdis/162.2.414 Daum, 1992, Characterization of Staphylococcus aureus isolates with decreased susceptibility to vancomycin and teicoplanin: Isolation and purification of a constitutively produced protein associated with decreased susceptibility, J Infect Dis, 166, 1066, 10.1093/infdis/166.5.1066 Del'Alamo, 1999, Antimicrobial susceptibility of coagulase-negative staphylococci and characterization of isolates with reduced susceptibility to glycopeptides, Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis, 34, 185, 10.1016/S0732-8893(99)00034-6 Dever, 1991, Mechanisms of bacterial resistance to antibiotics, Arch Intern Med, 151, 886, 10.1001/archinte.151.5.886 Edge, 1996, Community-acquired bacteremia in HIV-positive patients: Protective benefit of co-trimoxazole, AIDS, 10, 1635, 10.1097/00002030-199612000-00007 Edgeworth, 1999, A 25-year study of nosocomial bacteremia in an adult intensive care unit, Crit Care Med, 27, 1421, 10.1097/00003246-199908000-00002 Edmond, 1999, Nosocomial bloodstream infections in United States hospitals: A three-year analysis, Clin Infect Dis, 29, 239, 10.1086/520192 Edmond, 1995, Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium bacteremia: Risk factors for infection, Clin Infect Dis, 20, 1126, 10.1093/clinids/20.5.1126 Edwards, 2000, Candida Species, 2656 Edwards, 1997, International conference for the development of a consensus on the management and prevention of severe candidal infections, Clin Infect Dis, 25, 43, 10.1086/514504 Eliopoulos, 1997, Vancomycin-resistant enterococci, Infect Dis Clin NA, 11, 851, 10.1016/S0891-5520(05)70393-7 Englehard, 1996, Nosocomial coagulase-negative staphylococcal infections in bone marrow transplantation recipients with central vein catheter. A 5-year prospective study, Transplantation, 15, 430, 10.1097/00007890-199602150-00020 Fernandez-Rodriguez, 1992, Aminoglycoside-modifying enzymes in clinical isolates harboring extended-spectrum beta-lactamases, Antimicrobial Agents Chemother, 36, 2536, 10.1128/AAC.36.11.2536 Fink, 1994, Treatment of severe pneumonia in hospitalized patients: Results of a multicenter, randomized, double-blind trial comparing intravenous ciprofloxacin with imipenem-cilastatin. The Severe Pneumonia Study Group, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 38, 547, 10.1128/AAC.38.3.547 FitzSimmons, 1993, The changing epidemiology of cystic fibrosis, J Pediatr, 122, 1, 10.1016/S0022-3476(05)83478-X Fraser, 1992, Candidemia in a tertiary care hospital: Epidemiology, risk factors, and predictors of mortality, Clin Infect Dis, 15, 414, 10.1093/clind/15.3.414 French, 1990, Hong Kong strains of methicillin-resistant and methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus have similar virulence, J Hosp Infect, 15, 117, 10.1016/0195-6701(90)90120-D French, 1996, Hospital outbreak of Klebsiella pneumoniae resistant to broad-spectrum cephalosporins and beta-lactam-beta-lactamase inhibitor combinations by hyperproduction of SHV-5 beta-lactamase, J Clin Microbiol, 34, 358, 10.1128/JCM.34.2.358-363.1996 Fridkin, 1999, Surveillance of antimicrobial use and antimicrobial resistance in United States hospitals: Project ICARE phase 2. Project Intensive Care Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemiology (ICARE) hospitals, Clin Infect Dis, 29, 245, 10.1086/520193 Friedland, 1994, Management of infections caused by antibiotic-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae, New Engl J Med, 331, 377, 10.1056/NEJM199408113310607 Garner, 1996, Guideline for isolation precautions in hospitals, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 17, 53, 10.1086/647190 Garrett, 1999, The emergence of decreased susceptibility to vancomycin in Staphylococcus epidermidis, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 20, 167, 10.1086/501605 Gerding, 1997, Is there a relationship between vancomycin-resistant enterococcal infection and Clostridium difficile infection?, Clin Infect Dis, 25, S206, 10.1086/516247 Gold, 1996, Antimicrobial-drug resistance, New Engl J Med, 335, 1445, 10.1056/NEJM199611073351907 Goodrich, 1991, Clinical features and analysis of risk factors for invasive candidal infection after marrow transplantation, J Infect Dis, 164, 731, 10.1093/infdis/164.4.731 Gray, 2000, Experience with quinupristin/dalfopristin in treating infections with vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium in children, Pediatr Infect Dis J, 19, 234, 10.1097/00006454-200003000-00012 Hanaki, 1998, Activated cell-wall synthesis is associated with vancomycin resistance in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clinical strains Mu3 and Mu50, J Antimicrob Chemother, 42, 199, 10.1093/jac/42.2.199 Hanaki, 1998, Increase in glutamine-non-amidated muropeptides in the peptidoglycan of vancomycin resistant Staphylococcus aureus strain Mu50, J Antimicrob Chemother, 42, 315, 10.1093/jac/42.3.315 Hanberger, 1999, Antibiotic susceptibility among aerobic gram-negative bacilli in intensive care units in 5 European countries. French and Portuguese ICU Study Groups, JAMA, 281, 67, 10.1001/jama.281.1.67 Harbarth, 1998, Impact of methicillin resistance on the outcome of patients with bacteremia caused by Staphylococcus aureus, Arch Intern Med, 158, 182, 10.1001/archinte.158.2.182 Harris, 1999, Epidemiology and clinical outcomes of patients with multiresistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Clin Infect Dis, 28, 1128, 10.1086/514760 Harwell, 2000, The drug-resistant pneumococcus: Clinical relevance, therapy, and prevention, Chest, 117, 530, 10.1378/chest.117.2.530 Herwaldt, 1996, The positive predictive value of isolating coagulase-negative staphylococci from blood cultures, Clin Infect Dis, 22, 14, 10.1093/clinids/22.1.14 Herwaldt, 1999, Control of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in the hospital setting, Am J Med, 106, 11S, 10.1016/S0002-9343(98)00350-7 Hilf, 1989, Antibiotic therapy for Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteremia: Outcome correlations in a prospective study of 200 patients, Am J Med, 87, 540, 10.1016/S0002-9343(89)80611-4 Hiramatsu, 1998, The emergence of Staphylococcus aureus with reduced susceptibility to vancomycin in Japan, Am J Med, 104, 7S, 10.1016/S0002-9343(98)00149-1 Hiramatsu, 1997, Dissemination in Japanese hospitals of strains of Staphylococcus aureus heterogeneously resistant to vancomycin, Lancet, 350, 1670, 10.1016/S0140-6736(97)07324-8 Hiramatsu, 1997, Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clinical strain with reduced vancomycin susceptibility, J Antimicrob Chemother, 40, 135, 10.1093/jac/40.1.135 Horvathova, 1998, Bacteremia due to methicillin-resistant staphylococci occurs more frequently in neutropenic patients who received antimicrobial prophylaxis and is associated with higher mortality in comparison to methicillin-sensitive bacteriemia, Int J Antimicrob Agents, 10, 55, 10.1016/S0924-8579(98)00009-0 Huebner, 1999, Coagulase-negative staphylococci: Role as pathogens, Annu Rev Med, 50, 223, 10.1146/annurev.med.50.1.223 IItokazu, 1996, Antimicrobial resistance rates among aerobic gram-negative bacilli recovered from patients in intensive care units: Evaluation of a national postmarketing surveillance program, Clin Infect Dis, 23, 779, 10.1093/clinids/23.4.779 Jacobson, 1995, The relationship between antecedent antibiotic use and resistance to extended-spectrum cephalosporins in group I beta-lactamase–producing organisms, Clin Infect Dis, 21, 1107, 10.1093/clinids/21.5.1107 Jacoby, 1991, New mechanisms of bacterial resistance to antimicrobial agents, Clin Infect Dis, 324, 601 Jacoby, 1996, Detection of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases in clinical isolates of Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli, J Clin Microbiol, 34, 908, 10.1128/JCM.34.4.908-911.1996 Jacoby, 1991, More extended-spectrum beta-lactamases, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 35, 1697, 10.1128/AAC.35.9.1697 Jones, 1989, The prevalence of staphylococcal resistance to penicillinase-resistant penicillins. A retrospective and prospective national surveillance trial of isolates from 40 medical centers, Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis, 12, 385, 10.1016/0732-8893(89)90108-9 Karabinis, 1988, Risk factors for candidemia in cancer patients: A case-control study, J Clin Microbiol, 26, 429, 10.1128/JCM.26.3.429-432.1988 Karmochkine, 1993, Recovery from staphylococcal septicaemia in neutropenic patients without removal of the previously inserted central venous catheter, Eur J Med, 2, 143 Katsanis, 1994, Detection of Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli strains producing extended-spectrum beta-lactamases, J Clin Microbiol, 32, 691, 10.1128/JCM.32.3.691-696.1994 Kauffman, 1993, Attempts to eradicate methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus from a long-term–care facility with the use of mupirocin ointment, Am J Med, 94, 371, 10.1016/0002-9343(93)90147-H Kerem, 1990, Pulmonary function and clinical course in patients with cystic fibrosis after pulmonary colonization with Pseudomonas aeruginosa, J Pediatr, 116, 714, 10.1016/S0022-3476(05)82653-8 Kotilainen, 1995, Epidemiology of the colonization of inpatients and outpatients with ciprofloxacin-resistant coagulase-negative staphylococci, Clin Infect Dis, 21, 685, 10.1093/clinids/21.3.685 Kuroda, 2000, Identication of the up- and down-regulated genes in vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains Mu3 and Mu50 by cDNA differential hybridization method, Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 269, 485, 10.1006/bbrc.2000.2277 Lai, 1997, The epidemiology of fecal carriage of vancomycin-resistant enterococci, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 18, 762, 10.1086/647531 Lamb, 1999, Quinupristin/dalfopristin: A review of its use in the management of serious gram-positive infections, Drugs, 58, 1061, 10.2165/00003495-199958060-00008 Levy, 1996, Microbial threats and the global society, Emerging Infect Dis, 2, 62, 10.3201/eid0201.960110 Lewis, 1985, Comparison of methicillin-resistant and methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia, Am J Infect Control, 13, 109, 10.1016/S0196-6553(85)80011-0 Linden, 1996, Differences in outcomes for patients with bacteremia due to vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium or vancomycin-susceptible E. faecium, Clin Infect Dis, 22, 663, 10.1093/clinids/22.4.663 Livermore, 1995, beta-Lactamases in laboratory and clinical resistance, Clin Microbiol Rev, 8, 557, 10.1128/CMR.8.4.557 Livermore, 1987, Clinical significance of beta-lactamase induction and stable derepression in gram-negative rods, Eur J Clin Micro, 6, 439, 10.1007/BF02013107 Livermore, 1991, beta-Lactamases of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Antibiotics Chemother, 44, 215, 10.1159/000420317 Livornese, 1992, Hospital-acquired infection with vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium transmitted by electronic thermometers, Ann Intern Med, 117, 112, 10.7326/0003-4819-117-2-112 Lonks, 1995, The growing threat of antibiotic-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae, Med Clin North Am, 79, 523, 10.1016/S0025-7125(16)30054-2 Lucet, 1999, Control of a prolonged outbreak of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase–producing enterobacteriaceae in a university hospital, Clin Infect Dis, 29, 1411, 10.1086/313511 Lucet, 1996, Outbreak of multiply resistant enterobacteriaceae in an intensive care unit: Epidemiology and risk factors for acquisition, Clin Infect Dis, 22, 430, 10.1093/clinids/22.3.430 Maenza, 1996, Risk factors for fluconazole-resistant candidiasis in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients, J Infect Dis, 173, 219, 10.1093/infdis/173.1.219 Maloney, 1989, Analysis of amikacin-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa developing in patients receiving amikacin, Arch Intern Med, 149, 630, 10.1001/archinte.149.3.630 Manfredi, 1993, Sepsis-bacteraemia and other infections due to non-opportunistic bacterial pathogens in a consecutive series of 788 patients hospitalized for HIV infection, Clin Terapeutica, 143, 279 Manian, 1996, Loss of antimicrobial susceptibility in aerobic gram-negative bacilli repeatedly isolated from patients in intensive-care units, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 17, 222, 10.1086/647284 Maranan, 1997, Antimicrobial resistance in staphylococci, Infect Dis Clin North Am, 11, 813, 10.1016/S0891-5520(05)70392-5 Martin, 1989, Coagulase-negative staphylococcal bacteremia. Mortality and hospital stay, Ann Intern Med, 110, 9, 10.7326/0003-4819-110-1-9 Martinez, 1998, Quinolone resistance by mutations in chromosomal gyrase genes, J Antimicrob Chemother, 42, 683, 10.1093/jac/42.6.683 Martone, 1998, Spread of vancomycin-resistant enterococci: Why did it happen in the United States?, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 19, 539, 10.1086/647870 McGowan, 1994, Do intensive hospital antibiotic control programs prevent the spread of antibiotic resistance?, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 15, 478, 10.1086/646954 McNeil, 2000, Successful treatment of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium bacteremia with linezolid after failure of treatment with synercid (quinupristin/dalfopristin), Clin Infect Dis, 30, 403, 10.1086/313669 Medeiros, 1993, Nosocomial outbreaks of multiresistant bacteria: Extended-spectrum beta-lactamases have arrived in North America, Ann Intern Med, 119, 428, 10.7326/0003-4819-119-5-199309010-00015 Medeiros, 1997, Evolution and dissemination of beta-lactamases accelerated by generations of beta-lactam antibiotics, Clin Infect Dis, 24, S19, 10.1093/clinids/24.Supplement_1.S19 Medeiros, 1997, Comparative susceptibility of clinical isolates producing extended spectrum beta-lactamases to ceftibuten: Effect of large inocula, Pediatr Infect Dis J, 16, S49, 10.1097/00006454-199703001-00005 Mest, 1994, Nasal colonization with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus on admission to the surgical intensive care unit increases the risk of infection, Anesth Analg, 78, 644, 10.1213/00000539-199404000-00005 Meyer, 1993, Nosocomial outbreak of Klebsiella infection resistant to late-generation cephalosporins, Ann Intern Med, 119, 353, 10.7326/0003-4819-119-5-199309010-00001 Moellering, 1999, The efficacy and safety of quinupristin/dalfopristin for the treatment of infections caused by vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium. Synercid Emergency-Use Study Group, J Antimicrob Chemother, 44, 251, 10.1093/jac/44.2.251 Monnet, 1997, Evidence of interhospital transmission of extended-spectrum beta-lactam-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae in the United States, 1986 to 1993. The National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 18, 492, 10.1086/647654 Montecalvo, 1999, Infection-control measures reduce transmission of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in an endemic setting, Ann Intern Med, 131, 269, 10.7326/0003-4819-131-4-199908170-00006 Montecalvo, 1997, A semiquantitative analysis of the fecal flora of patients with vancomycin-resistant enterococci: Colonized patients pose an infection control risk, Clin Infect Dis, 25, 929, 10.1086/597643 Muder, 1991, Methicillin-resistant staphylococcal colonization and infection in a long-term care facility, Ann Intern Med, 114, 107, 10.7326/0003-4819-114-2-1-107 Mugnier, 1998, Novel OXA-10–derived extended-spectrum beta-lactamases selected in vivo or in vitro, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 42, 3113, 10.1128/AAC.42.12.3113 Murray, 1995, What can we do about vancomycin-resistant enterococci?, Clin Infect Dis, 20, 1134, 10.1093/clinids/20.5.1134 Naumovski, 1992, Outbreak of ceftazidime resistance due to a novel extended-spectrum beta-lactamase in isolates from cancer patients, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 36, 1991, 10.1128/AAC.36.9.1991 Nguyen, 1996, The changing face of candidemia: Emergence of non-candida albicans species and antifungal resistance, Am J Med, 100, 617, 10.1016/S0002-9343(95)00010-0 Nordmann, 1998, Trends in beta-lactam resistance among Enterobacteriaceae, Clin Infect Dis, 27, S100, 10.1086/514905 Noskin, 1997, Vancomycin-resistant enterococci: Clinical, microbiologic, and epidemiologic features, J Lab Clin Med, 130, 14, 10.1016/S0022-2143(97)90054-8 Noskin, 1995, Recovery of vancomycin-resistant enterococci on fingertips and environmental surfaces, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 16, 577, 10.1086/647011 Papanicolaou, 1996, Nosocomial infections with vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium in liver transplant recipients: Risk factors for acquisition and mortality, Clin Infect Dis, 23, 760, 10.1093/clinids/23.4.760 Patel, 1999, In vitro activity of linezolid against vancomycin-resistant enterococci, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae, Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis, 34, 119, 10.1016/S0732-8893(99)00016-4 Paterson, 2000, Epidemiology of ciprofloxacin resistance and its relationship to extended-spectrum beta-lactamase production in Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates causing bacteremia, Clin Infect Dis, 30, 473, 10.1086/313719 Peacock, 1980, Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: Introduction and spread within a hospital, Ann Int Med, 93, 526, 10.7326/0003-4819-93-4-526 Pena, 1998, Epidemiology and successful control of a large outbreak due to Klebsiella pneumoniae producing extended-spectrum beta-lactamases, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 42, 53, 10.1128/AAC.42.1.53 Pfaller, 1996, Nosocomial candidiasis: Emerging species, reservoirs, and modes of transmission, Clin Infect Dis, 22, S89, 10.1093/clinids/22.Supplement_2.S89 Piroth, 1998, Spread of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae: Are beta-lactamase inhibitors of therapeutic value?, Clin Infect Dis, 27, 76, 10.1086/514643 Pitout, 1998, Plasmid-meditated resistance to expanded-spectrum cephalosporins among Enterobacter aerogenes strains, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 42, 560, 10.1128/AAC.42.3.596 Ponce de Leon, 1984, Hospital-acquired bloodstream infections with Staphylococcus epidermidis. Review of 100 cases, Am J Med, 77, 639, 10.1016/0002-9343(84)90354-1 Quale, 1996, Manipulation of a hospital antimicrobial formulary to control an outbreak of vancomycin-resistant enterococci, Clin Infect Dis, 23, 1020, 10.1093/clinids/23.5.1020 Quinn, 1986, Emergence of resistance to imipenem during therapy for Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections, J Infect Dis, 154, 289, 10.1093/infdis/154.2.289 Quinn, 1989, Novel plasmid-mediated beta-lactamase (TEM-10) conferring selective resistance to ceftazidime and aztreonam in clinical isolates of Klebsiella pneumoniae, AIDS, 33, 1451 Rahal, 1998, Class restriction of cephalosporin use to control total cephalosporin resistance in nosocomial Klebsiella, JAMA, 280, 1233, 10.1001/jama.280.14.1233 Rello, 1998, Recurrent Pseudomonas aeruginosa pneumonia in ventilated patients: Relapse or reinfection?, Am J Resp Crit Care Med, 157, 912, 10.1164/ajrccm.157.3.9703014 Rello, 1997, Survival in patients with nosocomial pneumonia: Impact of the severity of illness and the etiologic agent, Crit Care Med, 25, 1862, 10.1097/00003246-199711000-00026 Rello, 1994, Ventilator-associated pneumonia by Staphylococcus aureus. Comparison of methicillin-resistant and methicillin-sensitive episodes, Am J Resp Crit Care Med, 150, 1545, 10.1164/ajrccm.150.6.7952612 Rex, 1994, A randomized trial comparing fluconazole with amphotericin B for the treatment of candidemia in patients without neutropenia, New Engl J Med, 331, 1325, 10.1056/NEJM199411173312001 Riben, 1985, Emergence of tobramycin-resistant S. epidermidis possessing aminoglycoside modifying enzymes and bacteremic superinfection during empiric therapy of febrile neutropenic episodes, Clin Invest Med, 8, 272 Rice, 1996, Ceftazidime-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates recovered at the Cleveland Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Clin Infect Dis, 23, 118, 10.1093/clinids/23.1.118 Rice, 1990, Outbreak of ceftazidime resistance caused by extended-spectrum beta-lactamases at a Massachusetts chronic-care facility, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 34, 2193, 10.1128/AAC.34.11.2193 Richard, 1994, Pseudomonas aeruginosa outbreak in a burn unit: Role of antimicrobials in the emergence of multiply resistant strains, J Infect Dis, 170, 377, 10.1093/infdis/170.2.377 Romling, 1994, Epidemiology of chronic Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections in cystic fibrosis, J Infect Dis, 170, 1616, 10.1093/infdis/170.6.1616 Rongkavilit, 2000, Gram-negative bacillary bacteremia in human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected children, Pediatr Infect Dis J, 19, 122, 10.1097/00006454-200002000-00009 Rumbak, 1995, Significant reduction in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus ventilator-associated pneumonia associated with the institution of a prevention protocol, Crit Care Med, 23, 1200, 10.1097/00003246-199507000-00008 Rybak, 2000, In vitro activities of daptomycin, vancomycin, linezolid, and quinupristin-dalfopristin against Staphylococci and Enterococci, including vancomycin-intermediate and -resistant strains, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 44, 1062, 10.1128/AAC.44.4.1062-1066.2000 Safran, 1997, The effect of empiric and prophylactic treatment with fluconazole on yeast isolates in a surgical trauma care unit, Arch Surg, 132, 1184, 10.1001/archsurg.1997.01430350034006 Sahm, 1999, Antimicrobial resistance in key bloodstream bacterial isolates: Electronic surveillance with the Surveillance Network Database–USA, Clin Infect Dis, 29, 259, 10.1086/520195 Sanders, 1992, Beta-lactamases of gram-negative bacteria: New challenges for new drugs, Clin Infect Dis, 14, 1089, 10.1093/clinids/14.5.1089 Sanders, 1987, Chromosomal cephalosporinases responsible for multiple resistance to newer beta-lactam antibiotics, Ann Rev Microbiol, 41, 573, 10.1146/annurev.mi.41.100187.003041 Schiappa, 1996, Ceftazidime-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli bloodstream infection: A case-control and molecular epidemiologic investigation, J Infect Dis, 174, 529, 10.1093/infdis/174.3.529 Schumacher, 1998, Detection of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases. The reliability of methods for susceptibility testing as used in Denmark, APMIS, 106, 979, 10.1111/j.1699-0463.1998.tb00249.x Scully, 1992, Mupirocin treatment of nasal staphylococcal colonization, Arch Intern Med, 152, 353, 10.1001/archinte.152.2.353 Shlaes, 1997, Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America and Infectious Diseases Society of America Joint Committee on the Prevention of Antimicrobial Resistance: Guidelines for the prevention of antimicrobial resistance in hospitals, Clin Infect Dis, 25, 584, 10.1086/513766 Sieradzki, 1999, The development of vancomycin resistance in a patient with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection, N Engl J Med, 340, 517, 10.1056/NEJM199902183400704 Siu, 1999, Bacteremia due to extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae in a pediatric oncology ward: Clinical features and identification of different plasmids carrying both SHV-5 and TEM-1 genes, J Clin Microbiol, 37, 4020, 10.1128/JCM.37.12.4020-4027.1999 Smith, 1999, Quinolone-resistant Campylobacter jejuni infections in Minnesota, 1992–1998, N Engl J Med, 340, 1525, 10.1056/NEJM199905203402001 Smith, 1999, Emergence of vancomycin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Glycopeptide-Intermediate Staphylococcus aureus Working Group, N Engl J Med, 340, 493, 10.1056/NEJM199902183400701 Sorrell, 1982, Vancomycin therapy for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Ann Intern Med, 97, 344, 10.7326/0003-4819-97-3-344 Souvenir, 1998, Blood cultures positive for coagulase-negative staphylococci: Antisepsis, pseudobacteremia, and therapy of patients, J Clin Microbiol, 36, 1923, 10.1128/JCM.36.7.1923-1926.1998 Talon, 1998, Risks and routes for ventilator-associated pneumonia with Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 157, 978, 10.1164/ajrccm.157.3.9702096 Tenover, 1999, Detection and reporting of organisms producing extended-spectrum beta-lactamases: Survey of laboratories in Connecticut, J Clin Microbiol, 37, 4065, 10.1128/JCM.37.12.4065-4070.1999 Thomson, 1991, High-level resistance to cefotaxime and ceftazidime in Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates from Cleveland, Ohio, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 35, 1001, 10.1128/AAC.35.5.1001 Topeli, 1997, Septic shock as a predictor of mortality in bacteremia caused by coagulase-negative staphylococci, Eur J Clin Micro Infect Dis, 16, 411, 10.1007/BF02471904 Tornieporth, 1996, Risk factors associated with vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium infection or colonization in 145 matched case patients and control patients, Clin Infect Dis, 23, 767, 10.1093/clinids/23.4.767 Troillet, 1997, Imipenem-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa: Risk factors and antibiotic susceptibility patterns, Clin Infect Dis, 25, 1094, 10.1086/516092 Vedel, 1992, Clinical isolates of Escherichia coli producing TRI beta-lactamases: Novel TEM-enzymes conferring resistance to beta-lactamase inhibitors, J Antimicrob Chemother, 30, 449, 10.1093/jac/30.4.449 Venditti, 1991, Species identification and detection of oxacillin resistance in coagulase-negative Staphylococcus blood isolates from neutropenic patients, Eur J Epidemiol, 7, 686, 10.1007/BF00218683 Venezia, 1995, Molecular epidemiology of an SHV-5 extended-spectrum beta-lactamase in enterobacteriaceae isolated from infants in a neonatal intensive care unit, Clin Infect Dis, 21, 915, 10.1093/clinids/21.4.915 Verfaillie, 1991, Candida infections in bone marrow transplant recipients, Bone Marrow Transplant, 8, 177 Vidal, 1999, Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteremia in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1, Eur J Clin Micro Infect Dis, 18, 473, 10.1007/s100960050326 Vuye, 1989, Plasmid-mediated beta-lactamases in clinical isolates of Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli resistant to ceftazidime, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 33, 757, 10.1128/AAC.33.5.757 Weber, 1990, A novel chromosomal TEM derivative and alterations in outer membrane proteins together mediate selective ceftazidime resistance in Escherichia coli, J Infect Dis, 162, 460, 10.1093/infdis/162.2.460 Weese-Mayer, 1987, Risk factors associated with candidemia in the neonatal intensive care unit: A case-control study, Pediatr Infect Dis J, 6, 190, 10.1097/00006454-198702000-00009 Weinstein, 1997, The clinical significance of positive blood cultures in the 1990s: A prospective comprehensive evaluation of the microbiology, epidemiology, and outcome of bacteremia and fungemia in adults, Clin Infect Dis, 24, 584, 10.1093/clind/24.4.584 Wells, 1995, Stool carriage, clinical isolation, and mortality during an outbreak of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in hospitalized medical and/or surgical patients, Clin Infect Dis, 21, 45, 10.1093/clinids/21.1.45 Wendt, 1998, Survival of vancomycin-resistant and vancomycin-suseptible enterococci on dry surfaces, J Clin Microbiol, 36, 3734, 10.1128/JCM.36.12.3734-3736.1998 Wenzel, 1991, Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: Implications for the 1990s and effective control measures, Am J Med, 91, 221, 10.1016/0002-9343(91)90372-5 Wey, 1988, Hospital-acquired candidemia. The attributable mortality and excess length of stay, Arch Intern Med, 148, 2642, 10.1001/archinte.148.12.2642 Wey, 1989, Risk factors for hospital-acquired candidemia. A matched case-control study, Arch Int Med, 149, 2349, 10.1001/archinte.149.10.2349 Wiener, 1999, Multiple antibiotic-resistant Klebsiella and Escherichia coli in nursing homes, JAMA, 281, 517, 10.1001/jama.281.6.517 Winston, 2000, Quinupristin/dalfopristin therapy for infections due to vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium, Clin Infect Dis, 30, 790, 10.1086/313766 Wong, 1999, Bacteremia caused by staphylococci with inducible vancomycin heteroresistance, Clin Infect Dis, 29, 760, 10.1086/520429 Yamaguchi, 1994, Colonization pattern of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium, Am J Infect Control, 22, 202, 10.1016/0196-6553(94)90068-X