Antimicrobial Agents

John M. Embil1,2, Lindsay E. Nicolle2,3
1From the Infection Control Unit, Health Sciences Centre, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
2The Department of Internal Medicine, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
3University of Manitoba, Health Sciences Centre; and St. Boniface General Hospital, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada

Tài liệu tham khảo

Adu, 1995, Drug utilization review (DUR) of the 3rd generation cephalosporins. Focus on ceftriaxone, ceftazidime, and cefotaxime, Drugs, 50, 423, 10.2165/00003495-199550030-00002 Aguero-Rosenfeld, 1996, Human granulocytic ehrlichiosis: A case series from a medical centre in New York State, Ann Intern Med, 125, 904, 10.7326/0003-4819-125-11-199612010-00006 Ali, 1997, A meta-analysis of the relative efficacy and toxicity of single daily dosing versus multiple daily dosing of aminoglycosides, Clin Infect Dis, 24, 796, 10.1093/clinids/24.5.796 1997, American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Infectious Diseases: Therapy for children with invasive pneumococcal, infections, Pediatrics, 99, 289, 10.1542/peds.99.2.289 1994, American Thoracic Society and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Treatment of tuberculosis and tuberculosis infection in adults and, children, Am J. Respir Crit Care Med, 149, 1359, 10.1164/ajrccm.149.5.8173779 Andriole, 1993, The future of the quinolones, Drugs, 45, 1, 10.2165/00003495-199300453-00003 1997, Antimicrobial prophylaxis in, surgery, Med Lett Drugs Ther, 39, 97 Arrieta, 1997, Use of meropenem in the treatment of serious infections in childrin. Review of the current literature, Clin Infect Dis, 24, S207, 10.1093/clinids/24.Supplement_2.S207 Baciewicz, 1987, Update on rifampin drug interactions, Arch Intern Med, 147, 565, 10.1001/archinte.1987.00370030169033 Bailey, 1997, A meta-analysis of extended-interval dosing versus multiple daily dosing of aminoglycosides, Clin Infect Dis, 24, 786, 10.1093/clinids/24.5.786 Barradell, 1994, Cefepime. A review of its antibacterial activity, pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic use, Drugs, 47, 471, 10.2165/00003495-199447030-00007 Barry, 1998, Antipneumococcal activities of a ketolide (HMR 3647), a streptogramin (quinupristin-dalfopristin), a macrolide (erythromycin), and a lincosamide (clindamycin), Antimicrob Agents Chemo ther, 42, 945, 10.1128/AAC.42.4.945 Bartlett, 1998, Community-acquired pneumonia in adults: Guidelines for management. The Infectious Diseases Society of America, Clin Infect Dis, 26, 811, 10.1086/513953 Benenson, 1995, 303 Bergdahl, 1987, Plasma concentration following oral administration of di- and flucloxacillin in infants and children, Pharmacol Toxicol, 60, 233, 10.1111/j.1600-0773.1987.tb01741.x Birolini, 1985, Aztreonam plus clindamycin versus tobramycin plus clindamycin for the treatment of intra-abdominal infections, Rev Infect Dis, 7, S724, 10.1093/clinids/7.Supplement_4.S724 Bisno, 1996, Streptococcal infections of skin and soft tissues, N Engl J Med, 334, 240, 10.1056/NEJM199601253340407 Blaser, 1995, Once-daily dosing of aminoglycosides, Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis, 14, 1029, 10.1007/BF01590935 Bow, 1996, Quinolone-based antibacterial chemoprophylaxis in neutropenic patients: Effects of augmented gram-positive activity on infectious morbidity. National Cancer Institute of Canada Clinical Trials Group, Ann Intern Med, 125, 183, 10.7326/0003-4819-125-3-199608010-00004 Brewer, 1991, The monobactams, Mayo Clin Proc, 66, 1152, 10.1016/S0025-6196(12)65797-8 Brismar, 1995, Meropenem versus imipenem/cilastatin in the treatment of intra-abdominal infections, J Antimicrob Chemother, 35, 139, 10.1093/jac/35.1.139 Bryan, 1986, Problems in salmonellosis: Rationale for clinical trials with newer beta-lactam agents and quinolones, Rev Infect Dis, 8, 189, 10.1093/clinids/8.2.189 Bryson, 1996, Quinupristin-dalfopristin, Drugs, 52, 406, 10.2165/00003495-199652030-00006 Burghardt, 1998, On the target of a novel class of antibiotics, oxazolidinones, active against multidrug-resistant gram-positive bacteria, FEBS Lett, 425, 40, 10.1016/S0014-5793(98)00194-X Bums, 1959, Fatal circulatory collapse in premature infants receiving chloramphenicol, N Engl J Med, 261, 1318, 10.1056/NEJM195912242612604 Bush, 1989, Characterization of beta-lactamases, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 33, 259, 10.1128/AAC.33.3.259 Bush, 1995, Newer penicillins and beta-lactamase inhibitors, Infect Dis Clin North Am, 9, 653, 10.1016/S0891-5520(20)30691-7 Bushby, 1973, Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole: In vitro microbiologic aspects, J Infect Dis, 128, S442, 10.1093/infdis/128.Supplement_3.S442 1983, Canadian Metronidazole-Clindamycin Study Group: Prospective, randomized comparison of metronidazole and clindamycin, each with gentamicin for the treatment of serious intra-abdominal, infection, Surgery, 93, 221 1996, Cefepime (Maxipime) —A new parenteral cephalosporin, Med Lett Drugs Ther, 38, 84 Chant, 1995, Quinupristin/dalfopristin (RP 59500): A new streptogramin antibiotic, Ann Pharmacother, 29, 1022, 10.1177/106002809502901013 Clarke, 1977, Preoperative oral antibiotics reduce septic complications of colon operations: Results of prospective, randomized, double-blind clinical study, Ann Surg, 186, 251, 10.1097/00000658-197709000-00003 Cockcroft, 1976, Prediction of creatinine clearance from serum creatinine, Nephron, 16, 31, 10.1159/000180580 Collatz, 1984, Development of resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics with special reference to 3rd-generation cephalosporins, J Antimicrob Chemother, 14, 13, 10.1093/jac/14.suppl_B.13 Cometta, 1994, Escherichia coli resistant to fluoroqinolones in patients with cancer and neutropenia, N Engl J Med, 330, 1240, 10.1056/NEJM199404283301717 Craig, 1997, The pharmacology of meropenem, a new carbapenem antibiotic, Clin Infect Dis, 24, S266, 10.1093/clinids/24.Supplement_2.S266 Craig, 1946, Post antibiotic effect, 296 Cunha, 1995, Antimicrobial therapy I, Med Clin North Am, 79, 463 Cunha, 1995, Antimicrobial therapy II, Med Clin North Am, 79, 679 Dajani, 1997, Prevention of bacterial endocarditis. Recommendations by the American Heart Association, JAMA, 277, 1794, 10.1001/jama.1997.03540460058033 Daschner, 1981, Combination effect of piperacillin with four aminoglycosides on nonfermenting gram-negative bacteria, Chemotherapy, 27, 39, 10.1159/000237953 Davis, 1996, Ciprofloxacin. An updated review of its pharmacology, therapeutic efficacy and tolerability, Drugs, 51, 1019, 10.2165/00003495-199651060-00010 Dillon, 1975, Clinical experience with clindamycin and hydrochloride: 1. Treatment of streptococcal and mixed streptococcal-staphylococcal skin infections, Pediatrics, 55, 205 Dunn, 1996, Azithromycin. A review of its pharmacological properties and use as 3-day therapy in respiratory tract infections, Drugs, 51, 483, 10.2165/00003495-199651030-00013 Dupont, 1993, Prevention and treatment of traveler’s diarrhea, N Engl J Med, 328, 1821, 10.1056/NEJM199306243282507 Edelstein, 1995, Antimicrobial chemotherapy for legionnaires’ disease: A review, Clin Infect Dis, 21, S265, 10.1093/clind/21.Supplement_3.S265 Edmond, 1996, Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: Perspectives on measures needed for control, Ann Intern Med, 124, 329, 10.7326/0003-4819-124-3-199602010-00008 Edson, 1991, The aminoglycosides, Mayo Clin Proc, 66, 1158, 10.1016/S0025-6196(12)65798-X Eliopoulos, 1989, Ciprofloxacin in combination with other antimicrobials, Am J. Med, 87, 17S, 10.1016/0002-9343(89)90013-2 Eliopoulos, 1996, Antimicrobial combinations, 330 Eliopoulos, 1996, In vitro activities in new oxazolidinone antimicrobial agents against enterococci, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 40, 1745, 10.1128/AAC.40.7.1745 Enderlin, 1994, Streptomycin and alternative agents for the treatment of tularemia: Review of the literature, Clin Infect Dis, 19, 42, 10.1093/clinids/19.1.42 Falages, 1995, Clindamycin and metronidazole, Med Clin North Am, 79, 845, 10.1016/S0025-7125(16)30043-8 Farrar, 1985, Antibiotic resistance in developing countries, J Infect Dis, 152, 1103, 10.1093/infdis/152.6.1103 Feigin, 1975, Clindamycin treatment of osteomyelitis and septic arthritis in children, Pediatrics, 55, 213, 10.1542/peds.55.2.213 Fekety, 1997, Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and colitis, Am J Gastroenterol, 92, 739 Fernandez-Martin, 1991, Pyrimethamine-clarithromycin combination for therapy of acute Toxoplasma encephalitis in patients with AIDS, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 35, 2049, 10.1128/AAC.35.10.2049 Ford, 1997, Oxazolidinones: New antibacterial agents, Trends Microbiol, 5, 196, 10.1016/S0966-842X(97)01032-9 Freeman, 1997, Metronidazole. A therapeutic review and update, Drugs, 54, 679, 10.2165/00003495-199754050-00003 Freeman, 1997, Once-daily dosing of aminoglycosides: Review and recommendations for clinical practice, J Antimicrob Chemother, 39, 677, 10.1093/jac/39.6.677 Friedland, 1994, Management of infections caused by antibiotic- resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae, N Engl J Med, 331, 377, 10.1056/NEJM199408113310607 Fuller, 1996, Treatment of vancomycin-resistant enterococci, with a focus on quinupristin-dalfopristin, Pharmacotherapy, 16, 584 Gentry, 1991, Oral antimicrobial therapy for osteomyelitis, Ann Intern Med, 114, 986, 10.7326/0003-4819-114-11-986 Gentry, 1990, Oral ciprofloxacin compared with parenteral antibiotics in the treatment of osteomyelitis, Antimicrob Agent Chemother, 34, 40, 10.1128/AAC.34.1.40 Gerding, 1996, Extravascular antimicrobial distribution and respective blood concentrations in humans, 835 Gilbert, 1995, Aminoglycosides, 279 Gin, 1996, Vancomycin-resistant enterococci, Ann Pharmacother, 30, 615, 10.1177/106002809603000610 Gleason, 1997, Medical outcomes and antimicrobial costs with the use of the American Thoracic Society guidelines for outpatients with community-acquired pneumonia, JAMA, 278, 32, 10.1001/jama.1997.03550010046038 Gleckman, 1997, Adverse reactions to antibiotics. Clues for recognizing, understanding, and avoiding them, Postgrad Med, 101, 97, 10.3810/pgm.1997.04.198 Gorbach, 1984, Current experience with clindamycin in the treatment of abdominal and female pelvic infections, Scand J Infect Dis, 43, 82 1998, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Guidelines for treatment of sexually transmitted, diseases., MMWR, Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 47, 1 Gustaferro, 1991, Cephalosporin antimicrobial agents and related compounds, Mayo Clin Proc, 66, 1064, 10.1016/S0025-6196(12)61731-5 Hass, 1996, Bacterial osteomyelitis in adults: Evolving considerations in diagnosis and treatment, Am J Med, 101, 550, 10.1016/S0002-9343(96)00260-4 Hamilton-Miller, 1996, Activity of glycylcyclines CL 329998 and CL 331002 against minocycline-resistant and other strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, J Antimicrob Chemother, 37, 1171, 10.1093/jac/37.6.1171 Harding, 1979, Prophylaxis of recurrent urinary tract infection in female patients. Efficacy of low dose, thrice-weekly therapy with trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, JAMA, 242, 1975, 10.1001/jama.1979.03300180019023 Hardman, 1996 Haria, 1997, Trovafloxacin, Drugs, 54, 435, 10.2165/00003495-199754030-00006 Hatala, 1996, Once-daily aminoglycoside dosing in immunocompetent adults: A meta-analysis, Ann Intern Med, 124, 717, 10.7326/0003-4819-124-8-199604150-00003 Hathorn, 1997, Empirical treatment of febrile neutropenia: Evolution of current therapeutic approaches, Clin Infect Dis, 24, S256, 10.1093/clinids/24.Supplement_2.S256 Hellinger, 1991, Imipenem, Mayo Clin Proc, 66, 1074, 10.1016/S0025-6196(12)61732-7 Hilf, 1989, Antibiotic therapy for Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteremia: Outcome correlations in a prospective study of 200 patients, Am J Med, 87, 540, 10.1016/S0002-9343(89)80611-4 Holloway, 1996, Clinical applications of a new parenteral antibiotic in the treatment of severe bacterial infections, Am J. Med, 100, 52S, 10.1016/S0002-9343(96)00108-8 Hook, 1984, Typhoid fever today, N. Engl J. Med, 310, 116, 10.1056/NEJM198401123100210 Hooper, 1991, Fluoroquinolone antimicrobial agents, N. Engl J. Med, 324, 384, 10.1056/NEJM199102073240606 1981, Interactions of drugs with, alcohol, Med Lett Drugs Ther, 23, 33 Jacoby, 1997, Extended-spectrum beta-lactamases and other enzymes providing resistance to oxyimino- beta-lactams, Infect Dis Clin North Am, 11, 875, 10.1016/S0891-5520(05)70395-0 Jamjian, 1997, In vitro evaluation of a novel ketolide antimicrobial agent, RU-64004, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 41, 454, 10.1128/AAC.41.2.454 Johnson, 1996, In Vitro testing: Correlations of bacterial susceptibility, body fluid levels, and effectiveness of antibacterial therapy, 813 Johnson, 1992, Prophylactic antibiotics for head and neck surgery with flap reconstruction, Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg, 118, 488, 10.1001/archotol.1992.01880050034008 Jones, 1997, In vitro activity and spectrum of LY333328, a novel glycopeptide derivative, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 41, 488, 10.1128/AAC.41.2.488 Kaatz, 1998, Efficacy of LY333328 against experimental methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 42, 981, 10.1128/AAC.42.4.981 Kanatani, 1994, The new macrolides. Azithromycin and clarithromycin, West J Med, 160, 31 Kaye, 1995, Antibacterial therapy: In vitro testing, pharmacodynamics, pharmacology, new agents, Infect Dis Clin North Am, 9, 463 Kelly, 1994, Clostridium difficile colitis, N. Engl F J. Med, 330, 257, 10.1056/NEJM199401273300406 Kishiyama, 1994, The cross-reactivity and immunology of beta-lactam antibiotics, Drug Saf, 10, 318, 10.2165/00002018-199410040-00006 Klein, 1995, Tetracyclines. Med Clin North Am, 79, 789, 10.1016/S0025-7125(16)30039-6 Lawson, 1977, Fatal agranulocytosis attributed to co-trimoxazole therapy, BMJ, 2, 316, 10.1136/bmj.2.6082.316 Lawson, 1982, Adverse reactions to trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, Rev Infect Dis, 4, 429, 10.1093/clinids/4.2.429 Leclercq, 1997, Resistance to glycopeptides in enterococci, Clin Infect Dis, 24, 545, 10.1093/clind/24.4.545 Lentnek, 1991, Aztreonam in the treatment of gram-negative bacterial meningitis, Rev Infect Dis, 13, S586, 10.1093/clinids/13.Supplement_7.S586 Levinson, 1995, Pharmacodynamics of antimicrobial agents. Bactericidal and post antibiotic effects, Infect Dis Clin North Am, 9, 483, 10.1016/S0891-5520(20)30682-6 Levinson, 1983, Clindamycin compared with penicillin for the treatment of anaerobic lung abscess, Ann Intern Med, 98, 466, 10.7326/0003-4819-98-4-466 Lew, 1995, Quinolones and osteomyelitis: State-of-the-art, Drugs, 49, 100, 10.2165/00003495-199500492-00016 Limson, 1995, Short course quinolone therapy of typhoid fever in developing countries, Drugs, 49, S136, 10.2165/00003495-199500492-00022 Lipsky, 1997, Osteomyelitis of the foot in diabetic patients, Clin Infect Dis, 25, 1318, 10.1086/516148 Lipsky, 1990, Outpatient management of uncomplicated lower-extremity infections in diabetic patients, Arch Intern Med, 150, 790, 10.1001/archinte.1990.00390160058013 Livermore, 1987, Mechanisms of resistance to cephalosporin antibiotics, Drugs, 34, 64, 10.2165/00003495-198700342-00007 Lorian, 1996 Lortholary, 1995, Aminoglycosides. Med Clin North Am, 79, 761, 10.1016/S0025-7125(16)30038-4 Low, 1997, A practical guide for the diagnosis and treatment of acute sinusitis, CMAJ, 156, S1 MacGregor, 1997, Oral administration of antibiotics: A rational alternative to parenteral route, Clin Infect Dis, 24, 457, 10.1093/clinids/24.3.457 Madsen, 1976, Prostatic tissue and fluid concentrations of trimethoprim and suflamethoxazol: Experimental and clinical studies, Urology, 8, 129, 10.1016/0090-4295(76)90339-3 1995 Mandeli, 1993, The Canadian Community Acquired Pneumonia Consensus Conference Group: Antimicrobial treatment of community acquired pneumonia in adults: A conference report, Can J Infect Dis, 4, 25, 10.1155/1993/308589 Mason, 1996, In vitro activities of oxazolidinones U- 100592 and U-100766 against penicillin-resistant and cephalosporin-resistant strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 40, 1039, 10.1128/AAC.40.4.1039 Mathies, 1967, Antibiotic antagonism in bacterial meningitis, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 7, 218 Mercier, 1997, Pharmacodynamic evaluation of a new glyco- peptide, LY333328, and in vitro activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus faecium, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 41, 1307, 10.1128/AAC.41.6.1307 1996, Meropenem—A., new parenteral broad-spectrum, antibiotic, Med Lett Drugs Ther, 38, 88 Minami, 1980, Induction of beta-lactamase by various beta- lactam antibiotics in Enterobacter cloacae, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 18, 382, 10.1128/AAC.18.3.382 Mulazimoglu, 1996, In vitro activities of two novel oxazolidinones (U100592 and U100766), a new fluoroquinolone (trovafloxacin) and dalfopristin-quin- upristin against Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 40, 2428, 10.1128/AAC.40.10.2428 Mulligan, 1993, Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: A consensus review of the microbiology, pathogenesis and epidemiology with implications for prevention and management, Am J Med, 94, 313, 10.1016/0002-9343(93)90063-U Munckhof, 1996, A meta-analysis of studies on the safety and efficacy of aminoglycosides given either once daily or as divided doses, J Antimicrob Chemother, 37, 645, 10.1093/jac/37.4.645 Murray, 1985, Increasing resistance to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole among isolates of Escherichia coli in developing countries, J Infect Dis, 152, 1107, 10.1093/infdis/152.6.1107 Naber, 1989, Use of quinolones in urinary tract infections and prostatitis, Rev Infect Dis, 11, S1321, 10.1093/clinids/11.Supplement_5.S1321 Nathens, 1996, Antimicrobial therapy for intra-abdominal infection, Am J Surg, 172, S1, 10.1016/S0002-9610(96)00343-1 Neu, 1982, Antistaphylococcal penicillins, Med Clin North Am, 66, 51, 10.1016/S0025-7125(16)31441-9 Neu, 1982, Carbenicillin and ticarcillin, Med Clin North Am, 66, 61, 10.1016/S0025-7125(16)31442-0 Neu, 1985, Contribution of beta-lactamases to bacterial resistance and mechanisms to inhibit beta-lactamases, Am J Med, 79, 2 Neu, 1982, Penicillins—New insights into their mechanisms of activity and clinical use, Bull N Y Acad Med, 58, 681 Neu, 1992, The crisis in antibiotic resistance, Science, 257, 1064, 10.1126/science.257.5073.1064 Neu, 1982, Antibacterial activity and beta-lactamase stability of ceftazidime, an aminothiazolyl cephalosporin potentially active against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 21, 11, 10.1128/AAC.21.1.11 Nicas, 1997, Beyond vancomyc. New therapies to meet the challenge of glycopeptide resistance, Trends Microbiol, 5, 240, 10.1016/S0966-842X(97)01051-2 Nicolle, 1989, Prospective, randomized, placebo- controlled trial of norfloxacin for prophylaxis of recurrent urinary tract infection in women, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 33, 1032, 10.1128/AAC.33.7.1032 Niederman, 1993, Guidelines for the initial management of adults with community-acquired pneumonia: Diagnosis, assessment of severity, and initial antimicrobial therapy, Am Rev Respir Dis, 148, 1418, 10.1164/ajrccm/148.5.1418 Norden, 1986, Chronic osteomyelitis caused by Staphylococcus aureus: Controlled clinical trial of nafcillin therapy and nafcillin-rifampin therapy, South Med J, 79, 947, 10.1097/00007611-198608000-00008 Norris, 1995, Chloramphenicol for the treatment of vancomycin-resistant enterococcal infections, Clin Infect Dis, 20, 1137, 10.1093/clinids/20.5.1137 Parry, 1990, Aztreonam susceptibility testing. A retrospective analysis, Am J Med, 88, 7S, 10.1016/0002-9343(90)90080-W Pastorek, 1985, Aztreonam plus clindamycin as therapy for pelvic infections in women, Am J Med, 78, 47, 10.1016/0002-9343(85)90204-9 Pechere, 1996, Streptogramins: A unique class of antibiotics, Drugs, 51, 13, 10.2165/00003495-199600511-00005 Peterson, 1989, Therapy of lower extremity infections with ciprofloxacin in patients with diabetes mellitus, peripheral vascular disease, or both, Am J Med, 86, 801, 10.1016/0002-9343(89)90476-2 Pien, 1979, Comparative study of prophylactic antibiotics in cardiac surgery. Clindamycin versus cephalothin, J Thorac Cardio vase Surg, 77, 908, 10.1016/S0022-5223(19)38199-1 1994, Piperacillin/tazobactam, Med Lett Drugs Ther, 36, 7 Pitkin, 1997, Comparative in-vitro activity of meropenem versus other extended-spectrum antimicrobials against randomly chosen and selected resistant clinical isolates tested in 26 North American centers, Clin Infect Dis, 24, S238, 10.1093/clinids/24.Supplement_2.S238 Polk, 1988, Vancomycin and the red-man syndrome: Pharmacodynamics of histamine release, J Infect Dis, 157, 502, 10.1093/infdis/157.3.502 Power, 1992, Detection of ciprofloxacin resistance in gram- negative bacteria due to alterations in gyrA, J Antimicrob Chemother, 29, 9, 10.1093/jac/29.1.9 Quagliarello, 1997, Treatment of bacterial meningitis, N Engl J Med, 336, 708, 10.1056/NEJM199703063361007 Rahn, 1991, Lyme disease: Recommendations for diagnosis and treatment, Ann Intern Med, 114, 472, 10.7326/0003-4819-114-6-472 1995, Recommendations for preventing the spread of vancomycin, resistance., Recommendations of the Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee, (HICPAC), MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 44, 1 1997, Reduced susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus to vancomycin—Japan, 1996, MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 46, 624 Rich, 1950, A fatal case of aplastic anemia following chloram- penicol (chloromycetin) therapy, Ann Intern Med, 33, 1459, 10.7326/0003-4819-33-6-1459 Rubin, 1980, Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole. N. Engl, J. Med, 303, 426 Rybak, 1996, Combination antimicrobial therapy for bacterial infections. Guidelines for the clinician, Drugs, 52, 390, 10.2165/00003495-199652030-00005 Safrin, 1996, Comparison of three regimens for treatment of mild to moderate Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with AIDS. A doubleblind, randomized, trial of oral trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, dapsone-trimetho- prim, and clindamycin-primaquine, Ann Intern Med, 124, 792, 10.7326/0003-4819-124-9-199605010-00003 Saxon, 1988, Imipenem cross-reactivity with penicillin in humans, J Allergy Clin Immunol, 82, 213, 10.1016/0091-6749(88)91001-9 Saxon, 1987, Immediate hypersensitivity reactions to beta- lactam antibiotics, Ann Intern Med, 107, 204, 10.7326/0003-4819-107-2-204 Saxon, 1984, Lack of cross-reactivity between aztreonam, a monobactam antibiotic, and penicillin in penicillin-allergic subjects, J Infect Dis, 149, 16, 10.1093/infdis/149.1.16 Schaad, 1995, Use of fluoroquinolones in pediatrics: Consensus report of an International Society and Chemotherapy commission, Pediatr Infect Dis J, 14, 1, 10.1097/00006454-199501000-00001 Schlüter, 1989, Ciprofloxacin: Toxicologic evaluation of additional safety data, Am J Med, 87, S37, 10.1016/0002-9343(89)90018-1 Schwalbe, 1996, In vitro activity of LY333328, an investigational glycopeptide antibiotic, against enterococci and staphylococci, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 40, 2416, 10.1128/AAC.40.10.2416 Sensi, 1983, History of the development of rifampin, Rev Infect Dis, 5, S402, 10.1093/clinids/5.Supplement_3.S402 Sesin, 1990, Oral clindamycin and ciprofloxacin therapy for diabetic foot infections, Pharmacotherapy, 10, 154 Shafran, 1996, A comparison of two regimens for the treatment of Mycobacterium avium complex bacteremia in AIDS., Rifabutin, ethambu- tol, and clarithromycin versus rifampin, ethambutol, clofazimine and ciprofloxacin. Canadian HIV Trials Network Protocol 010 Study Group, N Engl J Med, 335, 377, 10.1056/NEJM199608083350602 Shepard, 1977, Is metronidazole teratogenic?, JAMA, 237, 1617 Shils, 1963, Renal disease and the metabolic effects of tetracycline, Ann Intern Med, 58, 398, 10.7326/0003-4819-58-3-389 Shonekan, 1997, Comparative in-vitro activities of RP59500 (quinupristin/dalfopristin), CL 329. 998, CL 331,002, trovafloxacin, clinafloxacin, teicoplanin, and vancomycin against gram-positive bacteria, J Antimicrob Chemother, 39, 405, 10.1093/jac/39.3.405 Simons, 1985, Aztreonam in the treatment of bone and joint infections caused by gram-negative bacilli, Rev Infect Dis, 7, S783, 10.1093/clinids/7.Supplement_4.S783 Slee, 1987, Oxazolidinones, a new class of synthetic antibacterial agents: In vitro and in vivo activities of DuP 105 and DuP 721, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 31, 1791, 10.1128/AAC.31.11.1791 Smieja, 1998, Current indications for the use of clindamycin: A critical review, Can J Infect Dis, 9, 22, 10.1155/1998/538090 Smilack, 1991, Tetracyclines, chloramphenicol, erythromycin, clindamycin, and metronidazole, Mayo Clin Proc, 66, 1270, 10.1016/S0025-6196(12)62479-3 Snavely, 1984, The neurotoxicity of antibacterial agents, Ann Intern Med, 101, 92, 10.7326/0003-4819-101-1-92 Soli, 1996, Consensus Conference. Medical treatment of peptic ulcer disease. Practice guidelines. Practice Parameters Committee of the American College of Gastroenterology, JAMA, 275, 622, 10.1001/jama.1996.03530320046033 Sorrell, 1985, A prospective study of adverse reactions associated with vancomycin therapy, J Antimicrob Chemother, 16, 235, 10.1093/jac/16.2.235 Spach, 1993, Tick-borne diseases in the United States, N Engl J Med, 329, 936, 10.1056/NEJM199309233291308 1997, Sparfloxacin levofloxacin, Med Lett Drugs Ther, 39, 41 Standiford, 1995, Tetracyclines and chloramphenicol, p306 Stout, 1997, Legionellosis, N Engl J Med, 337, 682, 10.1056/NEJM199709043371006 Sykes, 1985, Aztreonam: The first monobactam, Am J Med, 78, 2, 10.1016/0002-9343(85)90196-2 Tally, 1995, Glycy Icy dines: A new generation of tetracyclines, J Antimicrob Chemother, 35, 449, 10.1093/jac/35.4.449 Tenover, 1997, Antimicrobial resistance, Infect Dis Clin North Am, 11, 757 1998, The choice of antibacterial, drugs, Med Lett Drugs Ther, 40, 33M2 Tschida, 1995, Anti-infective agents and hepatic disease, Med Clin North Am, 79, 895, 10.1016/S0025-7125(16)30045-1 Tunkel, 1990, Bacterial meningitis: Recent advances in pathophysiology and treatment, Ann Intern Med, 112, 610, 10.7326/0003-4819-112-8-610 1997, USPHS/IDSA guidelines for the prevention of opportunistic infections in persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus: Disease-specific, recommendations USPHS/IDSA Prevention of Opportunistic Infections, Working Group, Clin Infect Dis, 25, S299 Van den Hazel, 1994, Role of antibiotics in the treatment and prevention of acute and recurrent cholangitis, Clin Infect Des, 19, 279, 10.1093/clinids/19.2.279 Van Scoy, 1992, Antituberculose agents, Mayo Clin Proc, 67, 179, 10.1016/S0025-6196(12)61320-2 Vannuffel, 1996, Mechanism of action of streptogramins and macrolides, Drugs, 51, 20, 10.2165/00003495-199600511-00006 Vega, 1991, Tolerance to aztreonam in patients allergic to betalactam antibiotics, Allergy, 46, 196, 10.1111/j.1398-9995.1991.tb00570.x Wagstaff, 1997, Grepafloxacin, Drugs, 53, 817, 10.2165/00003495-199753050-00007 Walker, 1991, The fluoroquinolones, Mayo Clin Proc, 66, 1249, 10.1016/S0025-6196(12)62477-X Wallerstein, 1969, Statewide study of chloramphenicol therapy and fatal aplastic anemia, JAMA, 208, 2045, 10.1001/jama.1969.03160110017004 Washington, 1993, Multicentre comparison of in vitro activities of FK-037, cefepime, ceftriaxone, ceftazadime and cefuroxime, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 37, 1696, 10.1128/AAC.37.8.1696 Weeks, 1981, Antagonism of ampicillin and chloramphenicol for meningeal isolates of group B streptococci, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 20, 281, 10.1128/AAC.20.3.281 Weinstein, 1964, Everinomicin, a new antibiotic complex from Micromonospora carbonacea, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 4, 24 Wenzel, 1998, Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: Infection control considerations, Clin Infect Dis, 27, 245, 10.1086/514646 Wheat, 1983, Long-term studies of the effect of rifampin on nasal carriage of coagulase-positive staphylococci, Rev Infect Dis, 5, S459, 10.1093/clinids/5.Supplement_3.S459 White, 1994, Paromomycin for cryptosporidiosis in AIDS: A prospective, double blind trial, J Infect Dis, 170, 419, 10.1093/infdis/170.2.419 Wiedemann, 1996, Susceptibility to antibiotics: Species incidence and trends, 900 Wilhelm, 1991, Vancomycin, Mayo Clin Proc, 66, 1165, 10.1016/S0025-6196(12)65799-1 Williams, 1995, Randomized controlled trial of 3 vs 10 days of trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole for acute maxillary sinusitis, JAMA, 273, 1015, 10.1001/jama.1995.03520370057037 Wilson, 1995, Antibiotic treatment of adults with infective endocarditis due to streptococci, enterococci, staphylococci and HACEK microorganisms, American Heart Association. JAMA, 274, 1706, 10.1001/jama.1995.03530210060032 Wiseman, 1997, Cefpirome. A review of its antibacterial activity, pharmacokinetic properties and clinical efficacy in the treatment of severe nosocomial infections and febrile neutropenia, Drugs, 54, 117, 10.2165/00003495-199754010-00013 Wormser, 1982, Co-trimoxazole (trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole): An updated review of its antibacterial activity and clinical efficacy, Drugs, 24, 459, 10.2165/00003495-198224060-00002 Zimmerli, 1998, Role of rifampin for treatment of orthopedic implant-related staphylococcal infections: A randomized control trial. Foreign Body Infection (FBI) study group, JAMA, 279, 1537, 10.1001/jama.279.19.1537 Zuckerman, 1995, The newer macrolides. Azithromycin and clarithromycin, Infect Dis Clin North Am, 9, 731, 10.1016/S0891-5520(20)30694-2