Anthropogenic energy and carbon flows through Canada’s agri-food system: Reframing climate change solutions

Adetona, 2019 Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 2012 Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 2016 Agriculture Financial Services Corporation, 2016 Ahmed, 2016, Biochar influences on agricultural soils, crop production, and the environment: a review, Environ. Rev., 24, 495, 10.1139/er-2016-0008 Ahmed, 2016, Insight into biochar properties and its cost analysis, Biomass Bioenergy, 84, 76, 10.1016/j.biombioe.2015.11.002 Alberta Agriculture and Forestry, 1998 Alberta Agriculture and Forestry, 2010 Alberta Agriculture and Forestry, 2018 Alberta Pulse Growers, 2016 Alexander, 2017, Losses, inefficiencies and waste in the global food system, Agric. Syst., 153, 190, 10.1016/j.agsy.2017.01.014 Ali, 2016, Torrefaction and process energy budget analysis of powdered, de-oiled, and in situ transesterified flaxseed cakes for energy generation, Energy Technol., 4, 980, 10.1002/ente.201600014 Arsenault, 2009, Comparing the environmental impacts of pasture-based and confinement-based dairy systems in Nova Scotia (Canada) using life cycle assessment, Int. J. Agric. Sustain., 7, 19, 10.3763/ijas.2009.0356 Atlason, 2014, Ideal EROI (energy return on investment) deepens the understanding of energy systems, Energy, 67, 241, 10.1016/j.energy.2014.01.096 Beauchemin, 2010, Life cycle assessment of greenhouse gas emissions from beef production in western Canada: a case study, Agric. Syst., 103, 371, 10.1016/j.agsy.2010.03.008 Beauchemin, 2011, Mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions from beef production in western Canada – evaluation using farm-based life cycle assessment, Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 166–167, 663, 10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2011.04.047 Bolinder, 2002, Root biomass and shoot to root ratios of perennial forage crops in eastern Canada, Can. J. Plant Sci., 82, 731, 10.4141/P01-139 Bradford, 1999, Contributions of animal agriculture to meeting global human food demand, Livest. Prod. Sci., 59, 95, 10.1016/S0301-6226(99)00019-6 Burch, 2005, Supermarket own brands, supply chains and the transformation of the agri- food system, Int. J. Sociol. Agric. Food, 13, 1 Campbell, 2005, Carbon storage in soils of the North American Great Plains, Agron. J., 97, 349, 10.2134/agronj2005.0349 Canadian Energy Systems Analysis Research, 2019 Dukes, 2003, Burning buried sunshine: human consumption of ancient solar energy, Clim. Change, 61, 31, 10.1023/A:1026391317686 Dyer, 2017, The fossil energy and CO2 emissions budget for the barnyard operations of livestock farms in Canada, Sustain. Agric. Res., 6, 152, 10.5539/sar.v6n2p152 Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2017 Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018 Environment Canada, 2011 Food and Agriculture Organization, 1994 Food and Agriculture Organization, 2011 Goglio, 2015, Accounting for soil carbon changes in agricultural life cycle assessment (LCA): a review, J. Clean. Prod., 104, 23, 10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.05.040 Goglio, 2018, Development of Crop.LCA, an adaptable screening life cycle assessment tool for agricultural systems: a Canadian scenario assessment, J. Clean. Prod., 172, 3770, 10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.06.175 Gram, 2002, Food spoilage–interactions between food spoilage bacteria, Int. J. Food Microbiol., 78, 79, 10.1016/S0168-1605(02)00233-7 Guo, 2015, Bioenergy and biofuels: history, status, and perspective, Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev., 42, 712, 10.1016/j.rser.2014.10.013 Haberl, 2008, The energetic metabolism of the European Union and the United States: decadal energy input time-series with an emphasis on biomass, J. Ind. Ecol., 10, 151, 10.1162/jiec.2006.10.4.151 Hammond, 2011, Prospective life cycle carbon abatement for pyrolysis biochar systems in the UK, Energy Policy, 39, 2646, 10.1016/j.enpol.2011.02.033 Health Canada, 2011 Heller, 2003, Assessing the sustainability of the US food system: a life cycle perspective, Agric. Syst., 76, 1007, 10.1016/S0308-521X(02)00027-6 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2006, 2006 IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories, Vol 4 Iversen, 2014 Jankowski, 2015, An analysis of energy efficiency in the production of oilseed crops of the family Brassicaceae in Poland, Energy, 81, 674, 10.1016/j.energy.2015.01.012 Janzen, 2004, Carbon cycling in earth systems—a soil science perspective, Agric. Ecosyst. Environ., 104, 399, 10.1016/j.agee.2004.01.040 Janzen, 1998, Management effects on soil C storage on the Canadian prairies, Soil Tillage Res., 47, 181, 10.1016/S0167-1987(98)00105-6 Jeffery, 2017, Biochar boosts tropical but not temperate crop yields, Environ. Res. Lett., 12, 1, 10.1088/1748-9326/aa67bd Klass, 1998 Krausmann, 2008, Global patterns of socioeconomic biomass flows in the year 2000: a comprehensive assessment of supply, consumption and constraints, Ecol. Econ., 65, 471, 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2007.07.012 Krausmann, 2002, The process of industrialization from the perspective of energetic metabolism: socioeconomic energy flows in Austria 1830-1995, Ecol. Econ., 41, 177, 10.1016/S0921-8009(02)00032-0 Krausmann, 2003 Lal, 2004, Agricultural activities and the global carbon cycle, Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosystems, 70, 103, 10.1023/B:FRES.0000048480.24274.0f Lal, 2005, World crop residues production and implications of its use as a biofuel, Environ. Int., 31, 575, 10.1016/j.envint.2004.09.005 Lehmann, 2006, Bio-char sequestration in terrestrial ecosystems – a review, Mitig. Adapt. Strateg. Glob. Chang., 11, 395, 10.1007/s11027-005-9006-5 Lesk, 2016, Influence of extreme weather disasters on global crop production, Nature, 529, 84, 10.1038/nature16467 Li, 2012, A review of agricultural crop residue supply in Canada for cellulosic ethanol production, Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev., 16, 2954, 10.1016/j.rser.2012.02.013 Liu, 2017, Carbon flow analysis of China’s agro-ecosystem from 1980 to 2013: a perspective from substance flow analysis, J. Environ. Sci. China (China), 55, 20, 10.1016/j.jes.2016.05.029 Lynch, 2011, The carbon and global warming potential impacts of organic farming: Does it have a significant role in an energy constrained world?, Sustainability, 3, 322, 10.3390/su3020322 Macdiarmid, 2016, Eating like there’s no tomorrow: public awareness of the environmental impact of food and reluctance to eat less meat as part of a sustainable diet, Appetite, 96, 487, 10.1016/j.appet.2015.10.011 McKendry, 2002, Energy production from biomass (part 2): conversion technologies, Bioresour. Technol., 83, 47, 10.1016/S0960-8524(01)00119-5 Myhre, 2013, Anthropogenic and natural radiative forcing. Climate change 2013: the physical science basis, Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Natural Resources Canada, 2018 Natural Resources Canada, 2018 Pelletier, 2008, Scenario modeling potential eco-efficiency gains from a transition to organic agriculture: life cycle perspectives on Canadian canola, corn, soy, and wheat production, Environ. Manage., 42, 989, 10.1007/s00267-008-9155-x Peters, 2015, Measuring a fair and ambitious climate agreement using cumulative emissions, Environ. Res. Lett., 10, 1, 10.1088/1748-9326/10/10/105004 Pimentel, 2009, Food versus biofuels: environmental and economic costs, Hum. Ecol., 37, 1, 10.1007/s10745-009-9215-8 Pimentel, 2008 Poore, 2018, Reducing food’s environmental impacts through producers and consumers, Science, 360, 987, 10.1126/science.aaq0216 Rubin, 2015 Smil, 2004, Improving efficiency and reducing waste in our food system, Environ. Sci. (Ruse), 1, 17, 10.1076/evms.1.1.17.23766 Smith, 2013, How much land-based greenhouse gas mitigation can be achieved without compromising food security and environmental goals?, Glob. Chang. Biol., 19, 2285, 10.1111/gcb.12160 Smith, 2008, Greenhouse gas mitigation in agriculture, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci., 363, 789, 10.1098/rstb.2007.2184 Statistics Canada, 2002 Statistics Canada, 2003 Statistics Canada, 2018 Statistics Canada, 2018 Statistics Canada, 2018 Statistics Canada, 2018 Statistics Canada, 2018 Statistics Canada, 2018 Statistics Canada, 2018 Thompson, 2008 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 2015 United States Department of Agriculture, 2016 United States Department of Agriculture, 2018 Veeramani, 2017, Carbon footprint of dietary patterns in Ontario, Canada: a case study based on actual food consumption, J. Clean. Prod., 162, 28, 10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.06.025 Wang, 2017, Energy return on investment of canadian oil sands extraction from 2009 to 2015, Energies, 10, 614, 10.3390/en10050614 Weiland, 2010, Biogas production: current state and perspectives, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 85, 849, 10.1007/s00253-009-2246-7 West, 2011, Regional uptake and release of crop carbon in the United States, Biogeosciences, 8, 2037, 10.5194/bg-8-2037-2011 Wirsenius, 2000 Wirsenius, 2003, Efficiencies and biomass appropriation of food commodities on global and regional levels, Agric. Syst., 77, 219, 10.1016/S0308-521X(02)00188-9 Wirsenius, 2003, The Biomass metabolism of the food system: a model-based survey of the global and regional turnover of food biomass, J. Ind. Ecol., 7, 47, 10.1162/108819803766729195 Wirsenius, 2010, How much land is needed for global food production under scenarios of dietary changes and livestock productivity increases in 2030?, Agric. Syst., 103, 621, 10.1016/j.agsy.2010.07.005 Wolf, 2015, Biogenic carbon fluxes from global agricultural production and consumption, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 29, 1617, 10.1002/2015GB005119 Wolinetz, 2017 Wollenberg, 2016, Reducing emissions from agriculture to meet the 2 °C target, Glob. Chang. Biol., 22, 3859, 10.1111/gcb.13340 Wright, 2009