An overview of snow photochemistry: evidence, mechanisms and impacts

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Amanda M. Grannas1, A. E. Jones2, Jack E. Dibb3, Markus Ammann4, Cort Anastasio5, H. J. Beine6,7,8, Michael Bergin9, J. W. Bottenheim10, C. S. Boxe11, G. D. Carver12, G. Chen13, J. H. Crawford13, Florent Dominé14, M. M. Frey14,15, Marcelo I. Guzmán16,11, Dwayne E. Heard17, Detlev Helmig18, Michael R. Hoffmann11, R. E. Honrath19, L. G. Huey20, M. A. Hutterli2, Hans‐Werner Jacobi21, Petr Klán22, B. L. Lefer23, John McConnell24, J. M. C. Plane17, Rolf Sander25, Joël Savarino14, P. B. Shepson26, William R. Simpson27, John R. Sodeau28, R. von Glasow29,30, Rolf Weller21, Eric Wolff2, Tong Zhu31
1Department of Chemistry, Villanova University, Villanova, PA, 19085 USA
2British Antarctic Survey, Natural Environment Research Council, Cambridge CB3 0ET, UK
3Institute for the Study of Earth, Oceans and Space, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA
4Laboratory for Radio- and Environmental Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland
5Department of Land, Air {&} Water Resources, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
600016 Monterotondo Scalo, Roma, Italy
7Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche – Istituto Inquinamento Atmosferico (C.N.R. – I.I.A)
8Via Salaria Km 29,3
9School of Civil and Environmental Engineering and School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
10Air Quality Research Branch, Environment Canada, Downsview, Ontario, Canada
11W. M. Keck Laboratories, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
12Center for Atmospheric Sciences, Department of Chemistry, Cambridge University, Lensfield Road, Cambridge, UK
13NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA 23681, USA
14Laboratoire de Glaciologie et Géophysique de l'Environnement,CNRS/Université Joseph Fourier-Grenoble, St Martin d'Hères Cedex, France
15School of Engineering, University of California-Merced, Merced, CA 95343, USA
16Currently at School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
17School of Chemistry, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
18Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309 USA
19Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931, USA
20School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30033, USA
21Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Bremerhaven, Germany
22Masaryk University, Department of Chemistry, Brno, Czech Republic
23Department of Geosciences, University of Houston, TX 77204, USA
24Department of Earth and Space Science and Engineering, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
25Air Chemistry Department, Max-Planck Institute of Chemistry, P.O. Box 3060, 55020 Mainz, Germany
26Dept. of Chemistry and Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
27Department of Chemistry and Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK 99775-6160, USA
28Department of Chemistry, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
29Institute of Environmental Physics, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
30School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK
31College of Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China

Tóm tắt

Abstract. It has been shown that sunlit snow and ice plays an important role in processing atmospheric species. Photochemical production of a variety of chemicals has recently been reported to occur in snow/ice and the release of these photochemically generated species may significantly impact the chemistry of the overlying atmosphere. Nitrogen oxide and oxidant precursor fluxes have been measured in a number of snow covered environments, where in some cases the emissions significantly impact the overlying boundary layer. For example, photochemical ozone production (such as that occurring in polluted mid-latitudes) of 3–4 ppbv/day has been observed at South Pole, due to high OH and NO levels present in a relatively shallow boundary layer. Field and laboratory experiments have determined that the origin of the observed NOx flux is the photochemistry of nitrate within the snowpack, however some details of the mechanism have not yet been elucidated. A variety of low molecular weight organic compounds have been shown to be emitted from sunlit snowpacks, the source of which has been proposed to be either direct or indirect photo-oxidation of natural organic materials present in the snow. Although myriad studies have observed active processing of species within irradiated snowpacks, the fundamental chemistry occurring remains poorly understood. Here we consider the nature of snow at a fundamental, physical level; photochemical processes within snow and the caveats needed for comparison to atmospheric photochemistry; our current understanding of nitrogen, oxidant, halogen and organic photochemistry within snow; the current limitations faced by the field and implications for the future.

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