Alertness and cognitive control: Testing the spatial grouping hypothesis
Tóm tắt
Alertness seems to influence selective attention processes underlying cognitive control in the flanker task, as indicated by previous findings of larger congruency effects on alert trials (in which task stimuli are preceded by alerting cues) than on no-alert trials. One hypothesis for the alerting–congruency interaction is that increased alertness promotes spatial grouping of the target and distractors. In the present study, the author tested the spatial grouping hypothesis in three experiments in which the spatial alignment (collinearity) of the target and distractors was manipulated. Reliable alerting–congruency interactions were obtained, and congruency effects on response times were smaller for misaligned stimuli than for aligned stimuli in all experiments. However, the alerting–congruency interactions were not consistently modulated by alignment, contrary to a prediction derived from the spatial grouping hypothesis. The results suggest that spatial grouping is not a viable mechanism for explaining the alerting–congruency interaction in the flanker task, helping to prune the space of theoretical possibilities for linking alertness to cognitive control.
Tài liệu tham khảo
Baylis, G. C., & Driver, J. (1992). Visual parsing and response competition: The effect of grouping factors. Perception & Psychophysics, 51, 145–162.
Böckler, A., Alpay, G., & Stürmer, B. (2011). Accessory stimuli affect the emergence of conflict, not conflict control: A Simon-task ERP study. Experimental Psychology, 58, 102–109.
Bundesen, C., Vangkilde, S., & Habekost, T. (2015). Components of visual bias: A multiplicative hypothesis. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1339, 116–124.
Callejas, A., Lupiáñez, J., Funes, M. J., & Tudela, P. (2005). Modulations among the alerting, orienting, and executive control networks. Experimental Brain Research, 167, 27–37.
Callejas, A., Lupiáñez, J., & Tudela, P. (2004). The three attentional networks: On their independence and interactions. Brain and Cognition, 54, 225–227.
Cohen, J. D., Servan-Schreiber, D., & McClelland, J. L. (1992). A parallel distributed processing approach to automaticity. American Journal of Psychology, 105, 239–269.
Eriksen, B. A., & Eriksen, C. W. (1974). Effects of noise letters upon the identification of a target letter in a nonsearch task. Perception & Psychophysics, 16, 143–149.
Fan, J., McCandliss, B. D., Sommer, T., Raz, A., & Posner, M. I. (2002). Testing the efficiency and independence of attentional networks. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14, 340–347.
Fischer, R., Plessow, F., & Kiesel, A. (2010). Auditory warning signals affect mechanisms of response selection: Evidence from a Simon task. Experimental Psychology, 57, 89–97.
Fischer, R., Plessow, F., & Kiesel, A. (2012). The effects of alerting signals in action control: Activation of S–R associations or inhibition of executive control processes? Psychological Research, 76, 317–328.
Gratton, G., Coles, M. G. H., & Donchin, E. (1992). Optimizing the use of information: Strategic control of activation of responses. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 121, 480–506.
Hartmann, G. W. (1935). Gestalt psychology: A survey of facts and principles. New York: Ronald Press.
Heitz, R. P., & Engle, R. W. (2007). Focusing the spotlight: Individual differences in visual attention control. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 136, 217–240.
Held, L., & Ott, M. (2018). On p-values and Bayes factors. Annual Review of Statistics and Its Application, 5, 393–419.
Klein, R. M., & Ivanoff, J. (2011). The components of visual attention and the ubiquitous Simon effect. Acta Psychologica, 136, 225–234.
Kramer, A. F., & Jacobson, A. (1991). Perceptual organization and focused attention: The role of objects and proximity in visual processing. Perception & Psychophysics, 50, 267–284.
LaBerge, D. (1983). Spatial extent of attention to letters and words. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 9, 371–379.
Logan, G. D. (1996). The CODE theory of visual attention: An integration of space-based and object-based attention. Psychological Review, 103, 603–649.
Lu, C.-H., & Proctor, R. W. (1995). The influence of irrelevant location information on performance: A review of the Simon and spatial Stroop effects. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 2, 174–207.
Luo, C., & Proctor, R. W. (2016). Perceptual grouping of objects occupied by target and flankers affects target-flanker interference. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 78, 251–263.
MacLeod, J. W., Lawrence, M. A., McConnell, M. M., Eskes, G. A., Klein, R. M., & Shore, D. I. (2010). Appraising the ANT: Psychometric and theoretical considerations of the Attention Network Test. Neuropsychology, 24, 637–651.
Masson, M. E. J., & Loftus, G. R. (2003). Using confidence intervals for graphically based data interpretation. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 57, 203–220.
Matthias, E., Bublak, P., Müller, H. J., Schneider, W. X., Krummenacher, J., & Finke, K. (2010). The influence of alertness on spatial and nonspatial components of visual attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 36, 38–56.
McConnell, M. M., & Shore, D. I. (2011). Mixing measures: Testing an assumption of the attention network test. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 73, 1096–1107.
Miller, J. (1991). The flanker compatibility effect as a function of visual angle, attentional focus, visual transients, and perceptual load: A search for boundary conditions. Perception & Psychophysics, 49, 270–288.
Nieuwenhuis, S., & de Kleijn, R. (2013). The impact of alertness on cognitive control. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 39, 1797–1801.
Palmer, S. E. (1999). Vision science: Photons to phenomenology. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Petersen, A., Petersen, A. H., Bundesen, C., Vangkilde, S., & Habekost, T. (2017). The effect of phasic auditory alerting on visual perception. Cognition, 165, 73–81.
Pomerantz, J. R., & Portillo, M. C. (2011). Grouping and emergent features in vision: Toward a theory of basic Gestalts. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 37, 1331–1349.
Posner, M. I. (2008). Measuring alertness. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1129, 193–199.
Posner, M. I., & Boies, S. J. (1971). Components of attention. Psychological Review, 78, 391–408.
Redick, T. S., & Engle, R. W. (2006). Working memory capacity and attention network test performance. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20, 713–721.
Rolke, B., & Hofmann, P. (2007). Temporal uncertainty degrades perceptual processing. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14, 522–526.
Rouder, J. N., Speckman, P. L., Sun, D., Morey, R. D., & Iverson, G. (2009). Bayesian t tests for accepting and rejecting the null hypothesis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 16, 225–237.
Schneider, D. W. (2018a). Alertness and cognitive control: Testing the early onset hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 44, 756–766.
Schneider, D. W. (2018b). Alertness and cognitive control: Toward a spatial grouping hypothesis. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 80, 913–928.
Schneider, D. W. (2019). Alertness and cognitive control: Is there a spatial attention constraint? Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 81, 119–136.
Schönbrodt, F. D., & Wagenmakers, E.-J. (2018). Bayes factor design analysis: Planning for compelling evidence. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 25, 128–142.
Seibold, V. C. (2018). Do alerting signals increase the size of the attentional focus? Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 80, 402–425.
Seifried, T., Ulrich, R., Bausenhart, K. M., Rolke, B., & Osman, A. (2010). Temporal preparation decreases perceptual latency: Evidence from a clock paradigm. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 63, 2432–2451.
Soutschek, A., Müller, H. J., & Schubert, T. (2013). Conflict-specific effects of accessory stimuli on cognitive control in the Stroop task and the Simon task. Experimental Psychology, 60, 140–147.
Weinbach, N., & Henik, A. (2011). Phasic alertness can modulate executive control by enhancing global processing of visual stimuli. Cognition, 121, 454–458.
Weinbach, N., & Henik, A. (2012). The relationship between alertness and executive control. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 38, 1530–1540.
Weinbach, N., & Henik, A. (2014). Alerting enhances attentional bias for salient stimuli: Evidence from a global/local processing task. Cognition, 133, 414–419.
White, C. N., Ratcliff, R., & Starns, J. J. (2011). Diffusion models of the flanker task: Discrete versus gradual attentional selection. Cognitive Psychology, 63, 210–238.