African American men as “criminal and dangerous”: Implications of media portrayals of crime on the “criminalization” of African American men

Bargh, J. A. (1999). The cognitive monster: A case against the controllability of automatic stereotype effects. In S. Chaiken & Y. Trope (Eds.), Dual-process theories in social psychology (pp. 361–382). New York: Guilford Press.

Bodenhausen, G. V. (1988). Stereotypic biases in social decision making and memory: Testing process models of stereotype use. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 726–737.

Bodenhausen, G. V. (1990). Second guessing the jury: Stereotypic and hindsight biases in perceptions of court cases. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20, 1112–1121.

Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 5–18.

Devine, P. G., & Monteith, M. J. (1999). Automaticity and control in stereotyping. In S. Chaiken & Y. Trope (Eds.), Dual-process theories in social psychology (pp. 339–360). New York: Guilford Press.

Dixon, T. L., & Linz, D. (2000). Overrepresentation and underrepresentation of African Americans and Latinos as lawbreakers on television news. Journal of Communication, 50(2), 131–154.

———. (2002). Television news, prejudical pretrial publicity, and the depiction of race. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 46, 112–136.

Drabman, R. S., Robertson, S. J., Patterson, J. N., Jarvie, G. J., Hammer, D., & Cordua, G. (1981). Children’s perception of media-portrayed sex roles. Sex Roles, 7, 379–389.

Dvorak, P. (2001, March 25). Officers fear friendly fire: black police proven to be at risk in D.C. The Washington Post, p. C1.

Entman, R. M. (1990). Modern racism and the images of blacks in local television news. Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 7, 332–345.

———. (1992). Blacks in the news: Television, modern racism and cultural change. Journalism Quarterly, 69, 341–361.

———. (1994). Representation and reality in the portrayal of blacks on network television news. Journalism Quarterly, 71, 509–520.

Entman, R. M., & Rojecki, A. (2000). The black image in the white mind: Media and race in America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Fazio, R. H., Jackson, J. R., Dunton, B. C., & Williams, C. J. (1995). Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure of racial-attitudes: A bona-fide pipeline. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 1013–1027.

Fiske, S. T. (1995). Social cognition. In A. Tesser (Ed.), Advanced social psychology (pp. 149–193). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Fyock, J., & Stangor, C. (1994). The role of memory biases in stereotype maintenance. British Journal of Social Psychology, 33, 331–343.

Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., Signorielli, N., & Shanahan, J. (2002). Growing Up with Television: Cultivation Processes. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (2nd ed.) (pp. 43–67). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Gilliam, F. D., & Iyengar, S. (2000). Prime suspects: The influence of local television news on the viewing public. American Journal of Political Science, 44, 560–573.

Gilliam, F. D., Valentino, N. A., & Beckmann, M. N. (2002). Where you live and what you watch: The impact of racial proximity and local television news on attitudes about race and crime. Political Research Quarterly, 55, 755–780.

Hurwitz, J., & Peffley, M. (1997). Public perceptions of race and crime. The role of racial stereotypes. American Journal of Political Science, 41, 375–401.

Johnson, J. D., Adams, M. S., Hall, W., & Ashburn, L. (1997). Race, media, and violence: Differential racial effects of exposure to violent news stories. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 19, 81–90.

Katz, I., & Hass, R. G. (1988). Racial ambivalence and American value conflict: Correlational and priming studies of dual cognitive structures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 893–905.

Kelly, T. (2000, March 25). Police shooting victim is remembered and mourned in tears and song. New York Times, p. B4.

Macrae, C. N., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2000). Social cognition: Thinking categorically about others. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 93–120.

Mastro, D. E., & Robinson, A. L. (2000). Cops and crooks: Images of minorities on primetime television. Journal of Criminal Justice, 28, 385–396.

Moeller, G. L. (1989). Fear of criminal victimization: The effect of neighborhood racial composition. Sociological Inquiry, 59, 208–221.

Oliver, M. B. (1994). Portrayals of crime, race, and aggression in reality-based police shows: A content-analysis. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 38, 179–192.

———. (1996). Influences of authoritarianism and portrayals of race on Caucasian viewers’ responses to reality-based crime dramas. Communication Reports, 9, 141–150.

———. (1999). Caucasian viewers’ memory of black and white criminal suspects in the news. Journal of Communication, 49(3), 46–60.

Oliver, M. B., & Armstrong, G. B. (1995). Predictors of viewing and enjoyment of reality-based and fictional crime shows. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 72, 559–570.

———. (1998). The color of crime: Perceptions of Caucasians’ and African Americans’ involvement in crime. In M. Fishman & G. Cavender (Eds.), Entertaining crime: Television reality programs (pp. 19–35). New York: Aldine de Gruyter.

Oliver, M. B., & Fonash, D. (2002). Race and crime in the news: Whites’ identification and misidentification of violent and nonviolent criminal suspects. Media Psychology, 4, 137–156.

Peffley, M., Shields, T., & Williams, B. (1996). The intersection of race and crime in television news stories: An experimental study. Political Communication, 13, 309–327.

Potter, W. J. (1986). Perceived reality and the cultivation hypothesis. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 30, 159–174.

———. (1988). Perceived reality in television effects research. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 32, 23–41.

Potter, W. J., Vaughan, M. W., Warren, R., Howley, K., Land, A., & Hagemeyer, J. C. (1995). How real is the portrayal of aggression in television entertainment programming? Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 39, 496–516.

Potter, W. J., & Ware, W. (1997). Traits of perpetrators and receivers of antisocial and prosocial acts on TV. Journalism Quarterly, 64, 382–391.

Potter, W. J., Warren, R., Vaughan, M., Howley, K., Land, A., & Hagemeyer, J. (1997). Antisocial acts in reality programming on television. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 41, 69–89.

Roskos-Ewoldsen, D. R., Roskos-Ewoldsen, B., & Carpentier, F. R. D. (2002). Media priming: A synthesis. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Russell, C. (1995). True crime. American Demographics, 17, 22–31.

St. John, C., & Heald-Moore, T. (1995). Fear of black strangers. Social Science Research, 24, 262–280.

Staples, B. (1992). Black men and public space. In D. Cavitch (Ed.), Life studies (pp. 29–32). Boston: Bedford Books.

---. (2000, March 12). How a black man’s wallet becomes a ‘gun’. New York Times, p. 4.14.

Tamborini, R., Mastro, D. E., Chory-Assad, R. M., & Huang, R. H. (2000). The color of crime and the court: A content analysis of minority representation on television. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 77, 639–653.

Taylor, S. E., & Falcone, H. T. (1982). Cognitive bases of stereotyping: The relationship between categorization and prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 8, 426–432.