Adolescents “walking the talk”: How value importance and enactment relate to well-being and risk-taking

Allodi, M. W. (2010). Goals and values in school: A model developed for describing, evaluating and changing the social climate of learning environments. Social Psychology of Education, 13(2), 207–235. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-009-9110-6. Arnett, J. (1992). Reckless behavior in adolescence: A developmental perspective. Developmental Review, 12(4), 339–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/0273-2297(92)90013-R. Auerbach, R. P., McWhinnie, C. M., Goldfinger, M., Abela, J. R., Zhu, X., & Yao, S. (2009). The cost of materialism in a collectivistic culture: Predicting risky behavior engagement in chinese adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 39(1), 117–127. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374410903401179. Bardi, A., & Schwartz, S. H. (2003). Values and behavior: Strength and structure of relations. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29(10), 1207–1220. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167203254602. Blais, M. R., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Brière, N. M. (1989). L’échelle de satisfaction de vie: Validation canadienne-française du “Satisfaction with Life Scale” [French-Canadian validation of the Satisfaction with Life Scale]. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 21(2), 210–223. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0079854. Bostic, T. J., Rubio, D. M., & Hood, M. (2000). A validation of the subjective vitality scale using structural equation modeling. Social Indicators Research, 52(3), 313–324. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007136110218. Bradshaw, E. L. (2019). Intrinsic and extrinsic aspirations and psychological well-being: a meta-analysis and latent profile analyses of life goals. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Australian Catholic University, Sydney, Australia. Brown, K. W., & Kasser, T. (2005). Are psychological and ecological well-being compatible? The role of values, mindfulness, and lifestyle. Social Indicators Research, 74(2), 349–368. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-004-8207-8. Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1992). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. Sociological Methods and Research, 21(2), 230–258. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124192021002005. Byrnes, J. P., Miller, D. C., & Schafer, W. D. (1999). Gender differences in risk taking: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 125(3), 367–383. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.125.3.367. Childs, K. K., Davidson, M., Potter, R. H., & Rosky, J. W. (2016). Exploring the structure of adolescent problem behaviors and the associated adult outcomes. Deviant Behavior, 37(1), 95–113. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2014.983018. Dahl, R. E. (2004). Adolescent brain development: A period of vulnerabilities and opportunities. Keynote address. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1021(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1308.001. Davids, E. L., Roman, N. V., & Kerchhoff, L. J. (2017). Adolescent goals and aspirations in search of psychological well-being: From the perspective of self-determination theory. South African Journal of Psychology, 47(1), 121–132. https://doi.org/10.1177/0081246316653744. Dawson, J. F. (2014). Moderation in management research: What, why, when, and how. Journal of Business and Psychology, 29(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-013-9308-7. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965pli1104_01. DiClemente, R. J., Hansen, W. B., & Ponton, L. E. (1996). Adolescents at risk. In R. J. DiClemente, W. B. Hansen, & L. E. Ponton (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent health risk behavior (pp. 1–4). Boston, MA: Springer. Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13. Dittmar, H. (2005). Compulsive buying: A growing concern? An examination of gender, age, and endorsement of materialistic values as predictors. British Journal of Psychology, 96(4), 467–491. https://doi.org/10.1348/000712605X53533. Djeriouat, H. (2017). Self-determination and risk: The role of life goals and causality orientation in domain-specific risk propensity. Journal of Risk Research, 20(2), 256–276. https://doi.org/10.1080/13669877.2015.1043573. Emmons, R. A. (1989). The personal striving approach to personality. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Goal concepts in personality and social psychology (pp. 87–126). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York, NY: Norton. Gaudreau, P., Sanchez, X., & Blondin, J. P. (2006). Positive and negative affective states in a performance-related setting: Testing the factorial structure of the PANAS across two samples of French-Canadian participants. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 22(4), 240–249. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759.22.4.240. Grouzet, F. M., Kasser, T., Ahuvia, A., Dols, J. M., Kim, Y., Lau, S., et al. (2005). The structure of goal contents across 15 cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89(5), 800–816. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.89.5.800. Hair, E. C., Park, M. J., Ling, T. J., & Moore, K. A. (2009). Risky behaviors in late adolescence: Co-occurrence, predictors, and consequences. Journal of Adolescent Health, 45(3), 253–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.02.009. Hope, N. H., Holding, A. C., Verner-Filion, J., Sheldon, K. M., & Koestner, R. (2019). The path from intrinsic aspirations to subjective well-being is mediated by changes in basic psychological need satisfaction and autonomous motivation: A large prospective test. Motivation and Emotion, 43(2), 232–241. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-018-9733-z. Hope, N. H., Milyavskaya, M., Holding, A. C., & Koestner, R. (2014). Self-growth in the college years: Increased importance of intrinsic values predicts resolution of identity and intimacy stages. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 5(6), 705–712. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550613516875. Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118. Huebner, E. S., & Dew, T. (1995). Preliminary validation of the positive and negative affect schedule with adolescents. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 13(3), 286–293. https://doi.org/10.1177/073428299501300307. Huta, V., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Pursuing pleasure or virtue: The differential and overlapping well-being benefits of hedonic and eudaimonic motives. Journal of Happiness Studies, 11(6), 735–762. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-009-9171-4. Irwin, C. E., Jr., Burg, S. J., & Cart, C. U. (2002). America’s adolescents: Where have we been, where are we going? Journal of Adolescent Health, 31(6), 91–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1054-139X(02)00489-5. Isaksen, K. J., & Roper, S. (2012). The commodification of self-esteem: Branding and British teenagers. Psychology and Marketing, 29(3), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.20509. Joussemet, M., Landry, R., & Koestner, R. (2008). A self-determination theory perspective on parenting. Canadian Psychology-Psychologie Canadienne, 49(3), 194–200. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012754. Kann, L., McManus, T., Harris, W. A., Shanklin, S. L., Flint, K. H., Queen, B., et al. (2018). Youth risk behavior surveillance: United States, 2017. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report: Surveillance Summaries, 67(8), 1–114. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.ss6708a1. Kasser, T. (2002). Sketches for a self-determination theory of values. In E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 123–140). Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press. Kasser, T. (2016). Materialistic values and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 67(1), 489–514. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122414-033344. Kasser, T., Rosenblum, K. L., Sameroff, A. J., Deci, E. L., Niemiec, C. P., Ryan, R. M., et al. (2014). Changes in materialism, changes in psychological well-being: Evidence from three longitudinal studies and an intervention experiment. Motivation and Emotion, 38(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-013-9371-4. Kasser, T., & Ryan, R. M. (1993). A dark side of the American dream: Correlates of financial success as a central life aspiration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65(2), 410–422. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.65.2.410. Kasser, T., & Ryan, R. M. (1996). Further examining the American dream: Differential correlates of intrinsic and extrinsic goals. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22(3), 280–287. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167296223006. Kasser, T., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Be careful what you wish for: Optimal functioning and the relative attainment of intrinsic and extrinsic goals. In P. Schmuck & K. M. Sheldon (Eds.), Life goals and well-being: Towards a positive psychology of human striving (pp. 116–131). Gottingen: Hogrefe and Huber Publishers. Kasser, T., Ryan, R. M., Couchman, C. E., & Sheldon, K. M. (2004). Materialistic values: Their causes and consequences. In T. Kasser & A. D. Kanner (Eds.), Psychology and consumer culture: The struggle for a good life in a materialistic world (pp. 11–28). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Kenny, D. A. (2015). Measuring model fit. Retrieved from http://davidakenny.net/cm/fit.htm. Kim, Y., Kasser, T., & Lee, H. (2003). Self-concept, aspirations, and well-being in South Korea and the United States. The Journal of Social Psychology, 143(3), 277–290. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224540309598445. Kline, R. B. (Ed.). (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (3rd ed.). New York, NY: The Guilford Press. Knafo, A., & Schwartz, S. H. (2004). Identity formation and parent-child value congruence in adolescence. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 22(3), 439–458. https://doi.org/10.1348/0261510041552765. Koestner, R., Lekes, N., Powers, T. A., & Chicoine, E. (2002). Attaining personal goals: Self-concordance plus implementation intentions equals success. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(1), 231–244. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.83.1.231. La Guardia, J. G., & Ryan, R. M. (2002). What adolescents need: A self-determination theory perspective on development within families, school, and society. In F. Pajares & T. Urdan (Eds.), Adolescence and education (Vol. 2, pp. 193–219). Greenwich, CT: Information Age. Lakey, C. E., Hirsch, J. K., Nelson, L. A., & Nsamenang, S. A. (2014). Effects of contingent self-esteem on depressive symptoms and suicidal behavior. Death Studies, 38(9), 563–570. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481187.2013.809035. Lekes, N., Gingras, I., Philippe, F. L., Koestner, R., & Fang, J. Q. (2010). Parental autonomy-support, intrinsic life goals, and well-being among adolescents in China and North America. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39(8), 858–869. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-009-9451-7. Lekes, N., Hope, N. H., Gouveia, L., Koestner, R., & Philippe, F. L. (2012). Influencing value priorities and increasing well-being: The effects of reflecting on intrinsic values. Journal of Positive Psychology, 7(3), 249–261. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2012.677468. Li, T., & Feng, F. (2018). Goal content, well-being, and psychological needs satisfaction in Chinese adolescents. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 46(4), 541–550. Little, T. D. (2013). Longitudinal structural equation modeling. New York, NY: Guilford. Lundgren, T., Luoma, J. B., Dahl, J., Strosahl, K., & Melin, L. (2012). The Bull’s-Eye Values Survey: A psychometric evaluation. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 19(4), 518–526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpra.2012.01.004. Merikangas, K. R., He, J. P., Burstein, M., Swanson, S. A., Avenevoli, S., Cui, L., et al. (2010). Lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in US adolescents: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication-Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A). Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(10), 980–989. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2010.05.017. Mun, E. Y., Windle, M., & Schainker, L. M. (2008). A model-based cluster analysis approach to adolescent problem behaviors and young adult outcomes. Development and Psychopathology, 20(1), 291–318. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095457940800014X. Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (Eds.). (1998–2012). Mplus user’s guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén and Muthén. Neighbors, C., Lee, C. M., Lewis, M. A., Fossos, N., & Larimer, M. E. (2007). Are social norms the best predictor of outcomes among heavy-drinking college students? Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 68(4), 556–565. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2007.68.556. Niemiec, C. P., Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2009). The path taken: Consequences of attaining intrinsic and extrinsic aspirations in post-college life. Journal of Research in Personality, 43(3), 291–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2008.09.001. Olčar, D., Rijavec, M., & Golub, T. L. (2019). Primary school teachers’ life satisfaction: The role of life goals, basic psychological needs and flow at work. Current Psychology, 38(2), 320–329. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-017-9611-y. Opree, S. J., & Kühne, R. (2016). Generation Me in the spotlight: Linking reality TV to materialism, entitlement, and narcissism. Mass Communication and Society, 19(6), 800–819. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2016.1199706. Petersen, A. C., Compas, B. E., Brooks-Gunn, J., Stemmler, M., Ey, S., & Grant, K. E. (1993). Depression in adolescence. American Psychologist, 48(2), 155–168. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.48.2.155. Pinto, M. R., Mota, A. O., Leite, R. S., & Alves, R. C. (2017). Investigating the influencers of materialism in adolescence. Tourism and Management Studies, 13(1), 66–74. https://doi.org/10.18089/tms.2017.13109. Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879. Rindfleisch, A., Burroughs, J. E., & Denton, F. (1997). Family structure, materialism, and compulsive consumption. Journal of Consumer Research, 23(4), 312–325. https://doi.org/10.1086/209486. Rogers, C. R. (1961). On becoming a person. Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin. Rokeach, M. (1973). The nature of human values. New York: Free Press. Rose, L. M., Zask, A., & Burton, L. J. (2015). Psychometric properties of the Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ) in a sample of Australian adolescents. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 22(1), 68–77. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2015.1124791. Ryan, R. M. (1998). The relation of values and goals to mental health. New York: University of Rochester. Ryan, R. M., Chirkov, V. I., Little, T. D., Sheldon, K. M., Timoshina, E., & Deci, E. L. (1999). The American dream in Russia: Extrinsic aspirations and well-being in two cultures. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25(12), 1509–1524. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672992510007. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). The darker and brighter sides of human existence: Basic psychological needs as a unifying concept. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 319–338. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_03. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1), 141–166. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.141. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness. New York, NY: Guilford Publications. Ryan, R. M., & Frederick, C. (1997). On energy, personality, and health: Subjective vitality as a dynamic reflection of well-being. Journal of Personality, 65(3), 529–565. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1997.tb00326.x. Salama-Younes, M., Montazeri, A., Ismail, A., & Roncin, C. (2009). Factor structure and internal consistency of the 12-item General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12) and the Subjective Vitality Scale (VS), and the relationship between them: A study from France. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes. https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7525-7-22. Schafer, J. L., & Graham, J. W. (2002). Missing data: Our view of the state of the art. Psychological Methods, 7(2), 147–177. https://doi.org/10.1037//1082-989x.7.2.147. Schmuck, P., Kasser, T., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic goals: Their structure and relationship to well-being in German and US college students. Social Indicators Research, 50(2), 225–241. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007084005278. Schor, J. (2004). Born to buy: The commercialized child and the new consumer culture. New York, NY: Scribner. Schwartz, S. H., & Bilsky, W. (1987). Toward a universal psychological structure of human values. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(3), 550–562. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.3.550. Sheldon, K. M. (2005). Positive value change during college: Normative trends and individual differences. Journal of Research in Personality, 39(2), 209–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2004.02.002. Sheldon, K. M., Gunz, A., Nichols, C. P., & Ferguson, Y. (2010). Extrinsic value orientation and affective forecasting: Overestimating the rewards, underestimating the costs. Journal of Personality, 78(1), 149–178. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00612.x. Sheldon, K. M., & Kasser, T. (2008). Psychological threat and extrinsic goal striving. Motivation and Emotion, 32(1), 37–45. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-008-9081-5. Sheldon, K. M., & Krieger, L. S. (2014a). Service job lawyers are happier than money job lawyers, despite their lower income. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 9(3), 219–226. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2014.888583. Sheldon, K. M., & Krieger, L. S. (2014b). Walking the talk: Value importance, value enactment, and well-being. Motivation and Emotion, 38(5), 609–619. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-014-9424-3. Sheldon, K. M., Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L., & Kasser, T. (2004). The independent effects of goal contents and motives on well-being: It’s both what you pursue and why you pursue it. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30(4), 475–486. Soenens, B., Wuyts, D., Vansteenkiste, M., Mageau, G. A., & Brenning, K. (2015). Raising trophy kids: The role of mothers’ contingent self-esteem in maternal promotion of extrinsic goals. Journal of Adolescence, 42, 40–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.04.001. Steger, M. F., Frazier, P., Oishi, S., & Kaler, M. (2006). The Meaning in Life Questionnaire: Assessing the presence of and search for meaning in life. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53(1), 80–93. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.53.1.80. Steinberg, L. (2008). A social neuroscience perspective on adolescent risk-taking. Developmental Review, 28(1), 78–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2007.08.002. Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (Eds.). (2013). Using multivariate statistics (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson. Vallerand, R. J. (1989). Vers une méthodologie de validation trans-culturelle de questionnaires psychologiques: Implications pour la recherche en langue française. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 30(4), 662–680. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0079856. Van Den Broeck, A., Schreurs, B., Proost, K., Vanderstukken, A., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2019). I want to be a billionaire: How do extrinsic and intrinsic values influence youngsters’ well-being? The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 682(1), 204–219. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716219831658. Van Petegem, S., Soenens, B., Vansteenkiste, M., & Beyers, W. (2015). Rebels with a cause? Adolescent defiance from the perspective of reactance theory and self-determination theory. Child Development, 86(3), 903–918. Vasquez, A. C., Patall, E. A., Fong, C. J., Corrigan, A. S., & Pine, L. (2016). Parent autonomy support, academic achievement, and psychosocial functioning: A meta-analysis of research. Educational Psychology Review, 28(3), 605–644. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-015-9329-z. Visser, B. A., & Pozzebon, J. A. (2013). Who are you and what do you want? Life aspirations, personality, and well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 54(2), 266–272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.09.010. Vrouva, I., Fonagy, P., Fearon, P. R., & Roussow, T. (2010). The risk-taking and self-harm inventory for adolescents: Development and psychometric evaluation. Psychological Assessment, 22(4), 852–865. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020583. Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063–1070. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.54.6.1063. West, S. G., Finch, J. F., & Curran, P. J. (1995). Structural equation models with nonnormal variables: Problem and remedie. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation modeling: Concepts, issues, and applications (pp. 56–75). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Williams, G. C., Hedberg, V. A., Cox, E. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Extrinsic life goals and health-risk behaviors in adolescents. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30(8), 1756–1771. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2000.tb02466.x. Williams, K. E. (2014). Values and valued action : Relationships with perceived parenting styles and well-being at the transition from high school to early adulthood. Doctoral dissertation, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia Willoughby, T., Chalmers, H., Busseri, M. A., Bosacki, S., Dupont, D., Marini, Z., et al. (2007). Adolescent non-involvement in multiple risk behaviors: An indicator of successful development? Applied Development Science, 11(2), 89–103. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888690701384954. Wooten, D. B. (2006). From labeling possessions to possessing labels: Ridicule and socialization among adolescents. Journal of Consumer Research, 33(2), 188–198. https://doi.org/10.1086/506300. Zuckerman, M., Gagné, M., Nafshi, I., Knee, C. R., & Kieffer, S. C. (2002). Testing discrepancy effects: A critique, a suggestion, and an illustration. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 34(3), 291–303. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03195457.