A description of the global land-surface precipitation data products of the Global Precipitation Climatology Centre with sample applications including centennial (trend) analysis from 1901–present

Earth System Science Data - Tập 5 Số 1 - Trang 71-99
Andreas Becker1, Peter Finger1, Anja Meyer-Christoffer1, B. Rudolf1, Kirstin Schamm1, Ulrike Schneider1, Markus Ziese1
1Global Precipitation Climatology Centre, Deutscher Wetterdienst, Offenbach, Germany

Tóm tắt

Abstract. The availability of highly accessible and reliable monthly gridded data sets of global land-surface precipitation is a need that was already identified in the mid-1980s when there was a complete lack of globally homogeneous gauge-based precipitation analyses. Since 1989, the Global Precipitation Climatology Centre (GPCC) has built up its unique capacity to assemble, quality assure, and analyse rain gauge data gathered from all over the world. The resulting database has exceeded 200 yr in temporal coverage and has acquired data from more than 85 000 stations worldwide. Based on this database, this paper provides the reference publication for the four globally gridded monthly precipitation products of the GPCC, covering a 111-yr analysis period from 1901–present. As required for a reference publication, the content of the product portfolio, as well as the underlying methodologies to process and interpolate are detailed. Moreover, we provide information on the systematic and statistical errors associated with the data products. Finally, sample applications provide potential users of GPCC data products with suitable advice on capabilities and constraints of the gridded data sets. In doing so, the capabilities to access El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) sensitive precipitation regions and to perform trend analyses across the past 110 yr are demonstrated. The four gridded products, i.e. the Climatology (CLIM) V2011, the Full Data Reanalysis (FD) V6, the Monitoring Product (MP) V4, and the First Guess Product (FG), are publicly available on easily accessible latitude/longitude grids encoded in zipped clear text ASCII files for subsequent visualization and download through the GPCC download gate hosted on ftp://ftp.dwd.de/pub/data/gpcc/html/download_gate.html by the Deutscher Wetterdienst (DWD), Offenbach, Germany. Depending on the product, four (0.25°, 0.5°, 1.0°, 2.5° for CLIM), three (0.5°, 1.0°, 2.5°, for FD), two (1.0°, 2.5° for MP) or one (1.0° for FG) resolution is provided, and for each product a DOI reference is provided allowing for public user access to the products. A preliminary description of the scope of a fifth product – the Homogenized Precipitation Analysis (HOMPRA) – is also provided. Its comprehensive description will be submitted later in an extra paper upon completion of this data product. DOIs of the gridded data sets examined are as follows: doi:10.5676/DWD_GPCC/CLIM_M_V2011_025, doi:10.5676/DWD_GPCC/CLIM_M_V2011_050, doi:10.5676/DWD_GPCC/CLIM_M_V2011_100, doi:10.5676/DWD_GPCC/CLIM_M_V2011_250, doi:10.5676/DWD_GPCC/FD_M_V6_050, doi:10.5676/DWD_GPCC/FD_M_V6_100, doi:10.5676/DWD_GPCC/FD_M_V6_250, doi:10.5676/DWD_GPCC/MP_M_V4_100, doi:10.5676/DWD_GPCC/MP_M_V4_250, doi:10.5676/DWD_GPCC/FG_M_100.

Từ khóa


Tài liệu tham khảo

Adler, R. F., Huffman, G. J., Chang, A., Ferraro, R., Xie, P.-P., Janowiak, J., Rudolf, B., Schneider, U., Curtis, S., Bolvin, D., Gruber, A., Susskind, J., Arkin, P., and Nelkin, E.: The Version-2 Global Precipitation Climatology Project (GPCP) Monthly Precipitation analysis (1979–present), J. Hydrometeorol., 4, 1147–1167, 2003.

Andersson, A., Fennig, K., Klepp, C., Bakan, S., Gra{ß}l, H., and Schulz, J.: The Hamburg Ocean Atmosphere Parameters and Fluxes from Satellite Data – HOAPS-3, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 2, 215–234, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2-215-2010, 2010.

Arkin, P., Turk, J., and Ebert, B.: Pilot Evaluation of High Resolution Precipitation Products (PEHRPP): A Contribution to GPM Planning, http://www.eorc.jaxa.jp/GPM/event/ws5/hp/en/materials/6.8.3_abstract_Arkin.pdf (last access: 11 January 2013), 2005.

Barrett, E. C., Doodge, J., Goodman, M., Janowiak, J., Smith, E., and Kidd, C.: The FirstWetNet Precipitation Intercomparison Project (PIP-1), Remote Sensing Review, 11, 49–60, 1994.

Beck, C., Grieser, J., and Rudolf, B.: A New Monthly Precipitation Climatology for the Global Land Areas for the Period 1951 to 2000, Climate status report, 2004, 181–190, http://www.dwd.de/bvbw/generator/DWDWWW/Content/Oeffentlichkeit/KU/KU4/KU42/en/VASClimO/pdf__28__precipitation,templateId=raw,property=publicationFile.pdf/pdf_28_precipitation.pdf (last access: 11 January 2013), 2005.

Bulygina, O. N., Razuvaev, V. N., Korshunova, N. N., and Shvets, N. V.: Description of dataset of monthly precipitation totals from Russian stations, Internet Publication available from http://meteo.ru/english/climate/descrip7.htm (last access: 11 January 2013), 2010.

Bussieres, N. and Hogg, W.: The objective analysis of daily rainfall by distance weighting schemes on a mesoscale grid, Atmos. Ocean, 27, 521–541, 1989.

Caussinus, H. and Mestre, O.: Detection and correction of artificial shifts in climate series, J. Roy. Stat. Soc. C-App., 53, 405–425, 2004.

Chen, M. P., Xie, P., Janowiak, J. E., and Arkin, P. A.: Global land precipitation: A 50-year monthly analysis based on gauge observations, J. Hydrometeorol., 3, 249–266, 2002.

Dai, A., Fung, I. Y., and Del Genio, A. D.: Surface observed global land precipitation variations during 1900–1988, J. Climate, 10, 2943–2962, 1997.

Dee, D. P., Uppala, S. M., Simmons, A. J., Berrisford, P., Poli, P., Kobayashi, S., Andrae, U., Balmaseda, M. A., Balsamo, G., Bauer, P., Bechtold, P., Beljaars, A. C. M., van de Berg, L., Bidlot, J., Bormann, N., Delsol, C., Dragani, R., Fuentes, M., Geer, A. J., Haimberger, L., Healy, S. B., Hersbach, H. , Hólm, E. V., Isaksen, L., Kållberg, P., Köhler, M., Matricardi, M., McNally, A. P., Monge-Sanz, B. M., Morcrette, J.-J., Park, B.-K., Peubey, C., de Rosnay, P., Tavolato, C., Thépaut, J.-N., and Vitart, F.: The ERA-Interim reanalysis: configuration and performance of the data assimilation system, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 137, 553–597, 2011.

Dinku, T., Connor, S. J., Ceccato, P., and Ropelewski, C. F.: Comparison of global gridded precipitation products over a mountainous region of Africa, Int. J. Climatol., 28, 1627–1638, 2008.

Ebert, E. E., Janowiak, J., and Kidd, C.: Comparison of near-real-time precipitation estimates from satellite observations and numerical models, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 88, 47–64, 2007.

FAO: FAOClim 2.0. A world-wide agroclimatic database. Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN, Rome, Italy, CD-ROM + Users Manual (72 pp.) Environment and Natural Resources Working paper No. 5, available at: http://www.fao.org/nr/climpag/pub/en1102_en.asp (last access: 11 January 2013), 2001.

FAO: http://www.fao.org/nr/climpag/hot_2_en.asp (last access: 11 January 2013), 2011.

Fuchs, T., Rapp, J., Rubel, F., and Rudolf, B.: Correction of Synoptic Precipitation Observations due to Systematic Measuring Errors with Special Regard to Precipitation Phases, Phys. Chem. Earth Pt. B, 26, 689–693, 2001.

GCOS: Implementation Plan for the Global Observing System for Climate in Support of the UNFCCC, 186 pp., http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/gcos/Publications/gcos-138.pdf (last access: 11 January 2013), 2010.

GCOS: Summary Report and Recommendations from the Sixteenth Session of the GCOS/WCRP Atmospheric Observation Panel for Climate (AOPC-XVI), http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/gcos/Publications/gcos-148.pdf (last access: 11 January 2013), 2011.

Goodison, B. E., Louie, P. Y. T., and Yang, D.: WMO solid precipitation measurement inter-comparison – final report; WMO/TD-No. 872; Instruments and Observing Methods Report No. 67, WMO, Geneva, Switzerland, 212 pp., http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/www/reports/WMOtd872.pdf (last access: 11 January 2013), 1998.

Groisman, P. Y. and Rankova, E. Y.: Precipitation trends over the Russian permafrost-free zone: removing the artefacts of pre-processing, Int. J. Climatol., 21, 658–678, 2001.

Groisman, P. Y., Koknaeva, V. V., Belokrylova, T. A., and Karl, T. R.: Overcoming biases of precipitation measurement: A history of the USSR experience, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 72, 1725–1733, 1991.

Gruber, A. and Levizzani, V.: Assessment of Global Precipitation, A Project of the Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment (GEWEX) Radiation Panel GEWEX, World Climate Research Program, WCRP Report, WMO/TD-No. 1430, WMO Geneva, Switzerland, p. 5, 2008.

Hennon, P., Kruk, M., Hiburn, K., Yin, X., and Becker, A.: Global Climate Precipitation, in: State of the Climate in 2010, B. Am. Meteor. Soc., 92, 161–163, 2011.

Hijmans, R. J., Cameron, S. E., Parra, J. L., Jones, P. G., and Jarvis, A.: Very high resolution interpolated climate surfaces for global land areas, Int. J. Climatol., 25, 1965–1978, 2005.

Hofstra, N., Haylock, M., New, M., Jones, P., and Frei, C.: Comparison of six methods for the interpolation of daily, European climate data, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D21110, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JD010100, 2008.

Hou, A. Y., Skofronick-Jackson, G., Kummerow, C., and Shepherd, J. M.: Global Precipitation Measurement, in: Precipitation: Advances in Measurement, Estimation and Prediction, edited by: Michaelides, S., Springer-Verlag, 540 pp., ISBN 978-3-540-77654-3, 2008.

Huffman, G. J., Adler, R. F., Rudolf, B., Schneider, U., and Keehn, P. R.: Global precipitation estimates based on a technique for combining satellite- based estimates, rain gauge analysis, and NWP model precipitation information, J. Climate, 8, 1284–1295, 1995.

Huffman, G. J., Adler, R. F., Bolvin, D. T., and Gu, G.: Improving the global precipitation record: GPCP Version 2.1, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L17808, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009GL040000, 2009.

Huxol, S.: Trendanalyse von Zeitreihen der Komponenten des Wasserkreislaufes im Einzugsgebiet der Dreisam zur prozessorientierten Beurteilung hydrologischer Klimafolgen, Diploma Thesis, Institut for Hydrology at the Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg i.Br., Germany, http://www.hydrology.uni-freiburg.de/abschluss/Huxol_S_2007_DA.pdf (last access: 11 January 2013), 2007.

Jenne, R. and Joseph, D.: Sensitivity experiments with different 1 to 500 km scale networks (NCAR), WMO/TD-No. 115, Geneva, Switzerland, 1985.

Kaspar, F. and Cubasch, U.: Simulation of East African precipitation patterns, Meteorol. Z., 17, 511–517, 2008.

Kidd, C. and Huffman, G.: Review Global precipitation measurement, Meteorol. Appl., 18, 334–351, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/met.284/pdf, 2011.

Kidd, C., Ferraro, R., and Levizzani, V.: The International Precipitation Working Group, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 8, 1095–1099, https://doi.org/10.1175/2009BAMS2871.1, 2010.

Kidd, C., Bauer, P., Turk, J., Huffman, G., Joyce, R., Hsu, K.-L., and Braithwaite, D.: Inter-comparison of High-Resolution Precipitation Products over Northwest Europe, J. Hydrometeorol., 13, 67–83, https://doi.org/10.1175/JHM-D-11-042.1, 2012.

Kottek, M. and Rubel, F.: Global daily precipitation field from bias-corrected rain gauge and satellite observations. Part I: Design and Development, Meteorol. Z., 16, 525–539, 2007.

Krige, D. G.: A statistical approach to some basic mine valuation problems on the Witwatersrand, Journal of the Chemical, Metallurgical and Mining Society of South Africa, 52, 119–139, 1951.

Legates, D. R.: A climatology of global precipitation, Publ. in Climatology, 40, 85 pp., 1987.

Legates, D. R. and Willmott, C. J.: Mean seasonal and spatial variability in gauge-corrected, global precipitation, Int. J. Climatol., 10, 111–127, 1990.

Mächel, H., Rudolf, B., Maurer, T., Hagemann, S., Hagenbrock, R., Kitaev, L., Førland, E. J., Rasuvaev, V., and Tveito, I. E.: Chapter 5: Observed Hydrological Cycle, in: Arctic Climate Change, edited by: Lemke, P. and Jacobi, H.-W., Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York, ISSN 1381-8601, ISBN 97894-007-2026-8, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-2027-5, 464 pp., 2012.

Matsuura, K. and Willmott, C. J.: Terrestrial Precipitation: 1900–2010 Gridded Monthly Time Series (Version 3.01), http://climate.geog.udel.edu/ climate/html_pages/Global2011/README.GlobalTsP2011.html (last access: 11 January 2013), 2012.

Menne, M. J., Durre, I., Vose, R. S., Gleason, B. E., and Houston, T. G.: An Overview of the Global Historical Climatology Network-Daily Database, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 29, 897–910, 2012.

Mestre, O.: Correcting climate series using ANOVA technique, Proceedings of the Fourth Seminar for Homogenization and Quality Control in Climatological Databases, Budapest, Hungary, 93–96, 2004.

Meyer-Christoffer, A., Becker, A., Finger, P., Rudolf, B., Schneider, U., and Ziese, M.: GPCC Climatology Version 2011 at 0.25°: Monthly Land-Surface Precipitation Climatology for Every Month and the Total Year from Rain-Gauges built on GTS-based and Historic Data, https://doi.org/10.5676/DWD_GPCC/CLIM_M_V2011_025, 2011a.

Meyer-Christoffer, A., Becker, A., Finger, P., Rudolf, B., Schneider, U., and Ziese, M.: GPCC Climatology Version 2011 at 0.5°: Monthly Land-Surface Precipitation Climatology for Every Month and the Total Year from Rain-Gauges built on GTS-based and Historic Data, https://doi.org/10.5676/DWD_GPCC/CLIM_M_V2011_050, 2011b.

Meyer-Christoffer, A., Becker, A., Finger, P., Rudolf, B., Schneider, U., and Ziese, M.: GPCC Climatology Version 2011 at 1.0°: Monthly Land-Surface Precipitation Climatology for Every Month and the Total Year from Rain-Gauges built on GTS-based and Historic Data, https://doi.org/10.5676/DWD_GPCC/CLIM_M_V2011_100, 2011c.

Meyer-Christoffer, A., Becker, A., Finger, P., Rudolf, B., Schneider, U., and Ziese, M.: GPCC Climatology Version 2011 at 2.5°: Monthly Land-Surface Precipitation Climatology for Every Month and the Total Year from Rain-Gauges built on GTS-based and Historic Data, https://doi.org/10.5676/DWD_GPCC/CLIM_M_V2011_250, 2011d.

Miller, R. D.: The jackknife – a review, Biometrika, 61, 1–15, 1974.

Mitchel, T. D. and Jones, P. D.: An Improved Method of Construction a Database of Monthly Climate Observations and Associated High-Resolution Grids, Int. J. Climatol., 25, 693–712, 2005.

NCDC: Data Documentation for Dataset 9813: Daily and Sub-daily Precipitation for the Former USSR, Version 1.0, National Climatic Data Center, 151 Patton Ave., Asheville, NC 28801-5001 USA, ftp://ftp.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/data/documentlibrary/tddoc/td9813.pdf (last access: 11 January 2013), 2005.

New, M. G., Hulme, M., and Jones, P. D.: Representing twentieth-century space-time climate variability. Part I: development of a 1961–90 mean monthly terrestrial climatology, J. Climate, 12, 829–856, 1999.

New, M. G., Hulme, M., and Jones, P. D.: Representing twentieth-century space-time climate variability. Part II: development of 1901–1996 monthly grids of terrestrial surface climate, J. Climate, 13, 2217–2238, 2000.

New, M., Todd, M., Hulme, M., and Jones, P.: Precipitation measurements and trends on the twentieth century, Int. J. Climatol., 21, 1899–1922, 2001.

New, M., Lister, D., Hulme, M., and Makin, I.: A high-resolution data set of surface climate over global land areas, Clim. Res., 21, 1–25, https://doi.org/10.3354/cr021001, 2002.

Nicholson, S. E.: Revised rainfall series for the West African subtropics, Mon. Weather Rev., 107, 620–623, 1979.

Nicholson, S. E.: The spatial coherence of African rainfall anomalies: Interhemispheric teleconnections, J. Clim. Appl. Meteorol., 25, 1365–1381, 1986.

Nicolson, S. E.: An overview of African rainfall fluctuations of the last decade, J. Climate, 6, 1463–1466, 1993.

Nicolson, S. E.: The intensity, location and structure of the tropical rainbelt over West Africa as a factor in interannual variability, Int. J. Climatol., 28, 1775–1785, 2008.

Oldenborgh, G., van Urk, A., and Allen, M.: The Absence of a Role of Climate Change in the 2011 Thailand Floods, in: Explaining Extreme Events of 2011 from a Climate Perspective, edited by: Peterson, T. C., Stott, P. A., and Herring, S., B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 93, 1041–1067, 2012.

Parker, D. E., Hilburn, K., Hennon, P., and Becker, A.: Global Climate Precipitation, in: State of the Climate in 2011, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 93, 26–27, 2012.

Peterson, T. C. and Vose, R. S.: An overview of the Global Historical Climatology Network temperature database, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 78, 2837–2849, 1997.

Peterson, T. C., Vose, R., Schmoyer, R., and Razuvaev, V.: Global Historical Climatology Network (GHCN) quality control of monthly temperature data, Int. J. Climatol., 18, 1169–1179, 1998.

Rajeevan, M., Bhate, J., Kale, J. D., and Lal, B.: Development of a High Resolution Daily Gridded Rainfall Data for the Indian Region, Met. Monograph Climatology No. 22/2005, http://apdrc.soest.hawaii.edu/doc/india_rain_ref_report.pdf (last access: 11 January 2013), 2005.

Rubel, F. and Hantel, M.: BALTEX 1/6 degree daily precipitation climatology 1996–1998, Meteorol. Atmos. Phys., 77, 155–166, 2001.

Rubel, F. and Kottek, M.: Observed and projected climate shifts 1901–2100 depicted by world maps of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification, Meteorol. Z., 19, 135–141, https://doi.org/10.1127/0941-2948/2010/0430, 2010.

Rubel, F. and Rudolf, B.: Global daily precipitation estimates proved over the European Alps, Meteorol. Z., 10, 403–414, 2001.

Rudolf, B.: The global precipitation climatology centre, WMO Bulletin, 44, 77–78, 1995.

Rudolf, B. and Rubel, F.: Global Precipitation. Chapter 11 in Hantel: Observed Global Climate, Landolt-Börnstein (Numerical Data and Functional Relationships), Group V: Geophysics, Volume 6, Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York, Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York, ISBN-13 978-3-540-20206-6, 11–22, 2005.

Rudolf, B. und Schneider, U.: Calculation of Gridded Precipitation Data for the Global Land-Surface using in-situ Gauge Observations, Proceedings of the 2nd Workshop of the International Precipitation Working Group IPWG, Monterey, October 2004, ISBN 92-9110-070-6, ISSN 1727-432X, 231–247, 2005.

Rudolf, B., Hauschild, H., Reiss, M., and Schneider, U.: Berechnung der Gebietsniederschläge im 2,5°-Raster durch ein objektives Analyseverfahren, Meteorol. Z., 1, 32–50, 1992.

Rudolf, B., Hauschild, H., Rueth, W., and Schneider, U.: Terrestrial precipitation analysis: Operational method and required density of point measurements, in: Global Precipitation and Climate Change, edited by: Desbois, M. und Desalmand, F., Springer, Berlin, 173–186, 1994.

Rustemeier, E., Kapala, A., Mächel, H., Meyer-Christoffer, A., Schneider, U., Ziese, M., Venema,V., Becker, A., and Simmer, C.: An automatic method to homogenize trends in longterm monthly precipitation series, Geophys. Res. Abstr., Vol. 14, EGU2012-10654, 2012.

Schneider, U., Henning, D., Hauschild, H., Reiss, M., and Rudolf, B.: Zur Berechnung monatlicher Niederschlagshöhen aus synoptischen Meldungen, Meteorol. Z., 1, 22–31, 1992.

Schneider, U., Becker, A., Finger, P., Meyer-Christoffer, A., Rudolf, B., and Ziese, M.: GPCC Monitoring Product Version 4.0 at 1.0°: Near Real-Time Monthly Land-Surface Precipitation from Rain-Gauges based on SYNOP and CLIMAT Data, https://doi.org/10.5676/DWD_GPCC/MP_M_V4_100, 2011a.

Schneider, U., Becker, A., Finger, P., Meyer-Christoffer, A., Rudolf, B., and Ziese, M.: GPCC Monitoring Product Version 4.0 at 2.5°: Near Real-Time Monthly Land-Surface Precipitation from Rain-Gauges based on SYNOP and CLIMAT Data, https://doi.org/{10.5676/DWD_GPCC/MP_M_V4_250}, 2011b.

Schneider, U., Becker, A., Finger, P., Meyer-Christoffer, A., Rudolf, B., and Ziese, M.: GPCC Full Data Reanalysis Version 6.0 at 0.5°: Monthly Land-Surface Precipitation from Rain-Gauges built on GTS-based and Historic Data, https://doi.org/{10.5676/DWD_GPCC/FD_M_V6_050}, 2011c.

Schneider, U., Becker, A., Finger, P., Meyer-Christoffer, A., Rudolf, B., and Ziese, M.: GPCC Full Data Reanalysis Version 6.0 at 1.0°: Monthly Land-Surface Precipitation from Rain-Gauges built on GTS-based and Historic Data, https://doi.org/{10.5676/DWD_GPCC/FD_M_V6_100}, 2011d.

Schneider, U., Becker, A., Finger, P., Meyer-Christoffer, A., Rudolf, B., and Ziese, M.: GPCC Full Data Reanalysis Version 6.0 at 2.5°: Monthly Land-Surface Precipitation from Rain-Gauges built on GTS-based and Historic Data, https://doi.org/{10.5676/DWD_GPCC/FD_M_V6_250}, 2011e.

Schneider, U., Becker, A., Finger, F., Meyer-Christoffer, A., Ziese, M., and Rudolf, B.: GPCC's new land-surface precipitation climatology based on quality-controlled in-situ data and its role in quantifying the global water cycle, Theor. Appl. Climatol., accepted, 2013.

Schulzweida, U., Kornblueh, L., and Quast, R.: Climate Data Operators (CDO), User Guide, Version 1.5.2, https://code.zmaw.de/files/cdo/html/1.5.2/cdo.pdf (last access: 11 January 2013), 2011.

Sen, P. K.: Estimates of the regression coefficient based on Kendall's tau, J. Am. Stat. Assoc., 63, 1379–1389, 1968.

Shepard, D.: A two-dimensional interpolation function for irregularly spaced data, Proc. 23rd ACM Nat. Conf., Brandon/Systems Press, Princeton, NJ, 517–524, 1968.

Simmons, A.: From observations to service delivery: Challenges and opportunities, WMO Bulletin, 60, 96–107, 2011.

Simmons, A. J., Willet, K. M., Jones, P. D., Thorne P. W., and Dee, D. P.: Low frequency variations in surface atmospheric humidity, temperature, and precipitation: Inferences from reanalyses and monthly gridded observational data sets, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D01110, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JD012442, 2010.

Strangeways, I.: Precipitation: Theory, Measurement and Distribution, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 290 pp., 2007.

Trenberth, K. E.: The Definition of El Niño, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 78, 2771–2777, 1997.

UCL: http://drought.mssl.ucl.ac.uk/sources.html (last access: 11 January 2013), 2011.

USGS: Global 30 Arc-Second Elevation (GTOPO 30), http://eros.usgs.gov/#/Find_Data/Products_and_Data_Available/gtopo30/, last access: 11 January 2013.

Wild, M., Grieser, J., and Schär, C.: Combined surface solar brightening and increasing greenhouse effect support recent intensification of the global land-based hydrological cycle, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L17706, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GL034842, 2008.

Willmott, C. J., Rowe, C. M., and Philpot,W. D.: Small-scale climate maps: A sensitivity analysis of some common assumptions associated with grid-point interpolation and contouring, Am. Cartographer, 12, 5–16, 1985.

WMO: Review of requirements for area-averaged precipitation data, surface based and space based estimation techniques, space and time sampling, accuracy and error, data exchange, WCP-100, WMO/TD-No. 115, 1985.

WMO: The Global Precipitation Climatology Project – Implementation and Data Management Plan, WMO/TD-No. 367, 47 pp. and 6 Appendices, Geneva, 1990.

WMO: WMO Publication No. 9, Volume A, Observing Stations and WMO Catalogue of Radiosondes, http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/www/ois/volume-a/vola-home.htm, last access: 8 November 2011a.

WMO: WMO statement on the status of the global climate in 2010, WMO No. 1074, http://www.wmo.int/pages/publications/showcase/documents/1074_en.pdf (last access: 11 January 2013), 2011b.

Xie, P. and Arkin, P. A.: Global Precipitation: a 17-year monthly analysis based on gauge observations, satellite estimates, and numerical model outputs, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 78, 2539–2558, 1997.

Xie, P., Rudolf, B., Schneider, U., and Arkin, P. A.: Gauge-Based Monthly Analyses of Global Land Precipitation from 1971 to 1994, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 19023–19034, https://doi.org/10.1029/96JD01553, 1996.

Yatagai, A., Arakawa, O., Kamiguchi, K., Kawamoto, H., Nodzu, M. I., and Hamada, A.: A 44-year daily gridded precipitation dataset for Asia based on a dense network of rain gauges, SOLA, 5, 137–140, https://doi.org/10.2151/sola.2009-035, 2009.

Yatagai, A., Kamiguchi, K., Arakawa, O., Hamada, A., Yasutomi, N., and Kitoh, A.: APHRODITE: Constructing a Long-term Daily Gridded Precipitation Dataset for Asia based on a Dense Network of Rain Gauges, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 93, 1401–1415, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-11-00122.1, 2012.

Ye, B., Yang, D., Ding, Y., Han, T., and Koike, T.: A bias-corrected precipitation climatology for China, J. Hydrometeorol., 5, 1147–1160, 2004.

Ziese, M., Becker, A., Finger, P., Meyer-Christoffer, A., Rudolf, B., and Schneider, U.: GPCC First Guess Product at 1.0°: Near Real-Time First Guess Monthly Land-Surface Precipitation from Rain-Gauges based on SYNOP Data, https://doi.org/10.5676/DWD_GPCC/FG_M_100, 2011.