A brief review of environmentally benign antifouling and foul-release coatings for marine applications

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI), US Naval Institute, Annapolis, Iselin, COD (1952) Anderson CD, Hunter JE. NAV2000 Conference Proceedings, Venice, September 2000 Yebra, DM, Kiil, S, Dam-Johansen, K, “Antifouling Technology—Past, Present and Future Steps Towards Efficient and Environmentally Friendly Antifouling Coatings.” Prog. Org. Coat., 50 75–104 (2004) Dobretsov, S, Dahms, HU, Qian, P-Y, “Inhibition of Biofouling by Marine Microorganisms and their Metabolites.” Biofouling, 22 43–54 (2006) Abarzua, S, Jakubowski, S, “Biotechnological Investigation for the Prevention of Biofouling. I. Biological and Biochemical Principles for the Prevention of Biofouling.” Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 123 301–312 (1995) Railkin, AI, Marine Biofouling: Colonization Processes and Defences. CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, 2004 Haye, ME, “Marine Chemical Ecology: What’s Known and What’s Next?” J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol., 200 103–134 (1996) Kirschner, CM, Brennan, AB, “Bio-Inspired Antifouling Strategies.” Annu. Rev. Mater. Res., 42 211–229 (2012) Xu, Z, Ou Yang, Q, Yi, D, “Antifouling Method of Marine Fouling Organisms—A Review.” Corros. Sci. Prot. Technol., 24 192–198 (2012) Rascio, VJD, “Antifouling Coatings: Where Do We Go from Here?” Corros. Rev., 18 133–154 (2000) Champ, MA, “A Review of Organotin Regulatory Strategies Pending Actions Related Costs and Benefits.” Sci. Total Environ., 258 21–71 (2000) Abbott, A, Abel, PD, Arnold, DW, Milne, A, “Cost-Benefit Analysis of the Use of TBT: The Case for a Treatment Approach.” Sci. Total Environ., 258 5–19 (2000) Nanotechnology and Anti-fouling, http://www.european-coatings.com/Homepage-News/Nanotechnology-and-anti-fouling. Accessed Jan 2009 Taking the Green Measure, http://www.international-marine.com/propeller/PropellerImages/pdf/Propeller24_Jul10.pdf. Accessed July 2010 Eco-efficiency—A New Tool to Support Better Decisions on Hull Coating Investments, http://www.international-marine.com/literature/ecoefficiency-whitepaper.pdf. Accessed Sept 2010 Haak, PW, “Antifouling Systems, Current Status and Developments.” The Present Status of TBT-Copolymer Antifouling Paints, Proceedings of the International Symposium on Anti-fouling Paints for Ocean-Going Vessels, The Hague, February 21, 1996 Fuel-Saving Antifouling Shortlisted for Three Environmental Awards, http://www.bairdmaritime.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=784:fuel-saving-antifouling-shortlisted-for-three-environmental-awards&catid=91&Itemid=88. Accessed March 2009 MOL Focuses on High-Performance, Fuel-Saving Antifouling Ship Bottom Paint, http://www.micportal.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3170:mol-joint-co2-reduction-project-selected-as-mlits-industry-support-program&catid=19:vessels-equipment&Itemid=30. Accessed Jan 2010 Antifouling Systems, http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Environment/Anti-foulingSystems/Documents/FOULING2003.pdf. Accessed 2002 Brady, RF, “Fouling-Release Coatings for Warships.” Def. Sci. J., 94 400–404 (2005) Fletcher, M, “The Effects of Proteins on Bacterial Attachment to Polystyrene.” J. Gen. Microbiol., 94 400–404 (1976) Braithwaite, RA, McEvoy, LA, “Marine Biofouling on Fish Farms and its Remediation.” Adv. Mar. Biol., 47 215–252 (2005) Al-Juhni, AA, Newby, BZ, “Incorporation of Benzoic Acid and Sodium Benzoate into Silicone Coatings and Subsequent Leaching of the Compound from the Incorporated Coatings.” Prog. Org. Coat., 56 135–145 (2006) Warnken, J, Dunn, RJK, Teasdale, PR, “Investigation of Recreational Boats as a Source of Copper at Anchorage Sites Using Time-Integrated Diffusive Gradients in Thin Film and Sediment Measurements.” Mar. Pollut. Bull., 49 833–843 (2004) Strand, J, Jacobsen, JA, “Accumulation and Trophic Transfer of Organotins in a Marine Food Web from the Danish Coastal Waters.” Sci. Total Environ., 350 72 (2005) Evans, SM, Leksono, T, McKinnell, PD, “Tributyltin Pollution: A Diminishing Problem Following Legislation Limiting the Use of TBT-Based Antifouling Paints.” Mar. Pollut. Bull., 30 14 (1995) Swain, G, Proceedings of the International Symposium on Sea Water Drag Reduction, The Naval Undersea Warfare Center, Newport, 1998, 155–161 “TBT: Link to Whale Beachings? (COATINGS)”. Marine Log 2005, March issue, 34 Vold, H, “Prohibition of Organotin in Antifouling Systems: The Classification Societies’ Perspective.” J. Protect. Coat. Linings, 20 30–32 (2003) Vold, H, “Hull Coatings: Use of Harmful Anti-foulings Banned.” Mar. Eng. Rev., September issue, 49–50 (2008) Goldie, B, “Ballast tank test yields long-service epoxy.” J. Protect. Coat. Linings, February issue, 48–53 (2008) NATO International Staff—Defence Investment Division, Performance Requirements for Underwater Hull Paint Systems, AEP 61, Ed. 2 (2009) Kristensen, JB, Meyer, RL, Horsmans Poulsen, C, Kragh, KM, Besenbacjer, F, Laursen, BS, “Biomimetic Silica Encapsulation of Enzymes for Replacement of Biocides in Antifouling Coatings.” Green Chem., 12 387–394 (2010) Kugel, A, Stafslien, S, Chisholm, BJ, “Antimicrobial Coatings Produced by “Tethering” Biocides to the Coating Matrix: A Comprehensive Review.” Prog. Org. Coat., 72 222–252 (2011) Faÿ, F, Carteau, D, Linossier, I, Vallée-Réhel, K, “Evaluation of Anti-microfouling Activity of Marine Paints by Microscopical Techniques.” Prog. Org. Coat., 72 579–585 (2011) Juan, Z, Lin, C-G, Duan, D-X, “Progress on Measurement of Adhesion Strength of Marine Microfouling Organisms.” Adv. Mater. Res., 299–300 883–886 (2011) D’Souza, F, Bruin, A, Biersteker, R, Donnelly, G, Klijnstra, J, Rentrop, C, Willemsen, P, “Bacterial Assay for the Rapid Assessment of Antifouling and Fouling Release Properties of Coatings and Materials.” J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 37 363–370 (2010) Cassé, F, Stafslien, SJ, Bahr, JA, Daniels, J, Finlay, JA, Callow, JA, Callow, ME, “Combinatorial Materials Research Applied to the Development of New Surface Coatings V: Application of a Spinning Water-Jet for the Semi-High Throughput Assessment of Attachment Strength of Marine Fouling Algae.” Biofouling, 23 121–130 (2007) Da Gama, BAP, Pereira, RC, Soares, AR, Teixeira, VL, Yoneshigue-Valentin, Y, “Is the Mussel Test a Good Indicator of Antifouling Activity? A Comparison Between Laboratory and Field Assays.” Biofouling, 19 161–169 (2003) Stafslien, S, Daniels, J, Bahr, J, Chisholm, B, Ekin, A, Webster, D, Orihuela, B, Rittschof, D, “An Improved Laboratory Reattachment Method for the Rapid Assessment of Adult Barnacle Adhesion Strength to Fouling-Release Marine Coatings.” J. Coat. Technol. Res., (2012). doi:10.1007/s1198-012-9409-7 Ribeiro, E, Stafslien, SJ, Cassé, F, Callow, JA, Callow, ME, Pieper, RJ, Daniels, JW, Bahr, JA, Webster, DC, “Automated Image-Based Method for Laboratory Screening of Coating Libraries for Adhesion of Algae and Bacterial Biofilms.” J. Comb. Chem., 10 586–594 (2008) Hucknall, A, Rangarajan, S, Chilkoti, A, “In Pursuit of Zero: Polymer Brushes that Resist the Adsorption of Proteins.” Adv. Mater., 21 2441–2446 (2009) Krishnan, S, Weinman, CJ, Ober, CK, “Advances in Polymers for Anti-biofouling Surfaces.” J. Mater. Chem., 18 3405–3413 (2008) Wang, P, Tan, KL, Kang, ET, Neoh, KG, “Plasma-Induced Immobilization of Poly(Ethylene Glycol) onto Poly(Vinylidene Fluoride) Microporous Membrane.” J. Membr. Sci., 195 103–114 (2001) Ekblad, T, Bergström, G, Ederth, T, Conlan, SL, Mutton, R, Clare, AS, Wang, S, Liu, Y, Zhao, Q, D’Souza, F, Donnelly, GT, Willemsen, PR, Pettitt, ME, Callow, ME, Callow, JA, Liedberg, B, “Poly(Ethylene Glycol)-Containing Hydrogel Surfaces for Antifouling Applications in Marine and Freshwater Environments.” Biomacromolecules, 9 2775–2783 (2008) Holmlin, RE, Chen, X, Chapman, RG, Takayama, S, Whitesides, GM, “Zwitterionic SAMs that Resist Nonspecific Adsorption of Protein from Aqueous Buffer.” Langmuir, 17 2841–2850 (2001) Kang, G-D, Liu, Z-N, Yu, H-J, Cao, Y-M, “Enhancing Antifouling Property of Commercial Polyamide Reverse Osmosis Membrane by Surface Coating Using a Brush-Like Polymer Containing Poly(Ethylene Glycol) Chains.” Desalin. Water Treat., 37 139–145 (2012) Huang, J, Xue, J, Xiang, K, Zhang, X, Cheng, C, Sun, S, Zhao, C, “Surface Modification of Polyethersulfone Membranes by Blending Triblock Copolymers of Methoxyl Poly(Ethylene Glycol)–Polyurethane–Methoxyl Poly(Ethylene Glycol).” Colloids Surf. B, 88 315–324 (2011) Szott, LM, Horbett, TA, “Protein Interactions with Surfaces: Computational Approaches and Repellency.” Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol., 15 683–689 (2011) Ostaci, R-V, Damiron, D, Al Akhrass, S, Grohens, Y, Drockenmuller, E, “Poly(Ethylene Glycol) Brushes Grafted to Silicon Substrates by Click Chemistry: Influence of PEG Chain Length, Concentration in the Grafting Solution and Reaction Time.” Polym. Chem., 2 348–354 (2011) Hofs, B, Brzozowska, A, de Keizer, A, Norde, W, Cohen Stuart, MA, “Reduction of Protein Adsorption to a Solid Surface by a Coating Composed of Polymeric Micelles with a Glass-Like Core.” J. Colloid Interface Sci., 325 309–315 (2008) Kang, G, Liu, M, Lin, B, Cao, Y, Yuan, Q, “A Novel Method of Surface Modification on Thin-Film Composite Reverse Osmosis Membrane by Grafting Poly(Ethylene Glycol).” Polymer, 48 1165–1170 (2007) Grafahrend, D, Calvet, JL, Klinkhammer, K, Salber, J, Dalton, PD, Möller, M, Klee, D, “Control of Protein Adsorption on Functionalized Electrospun Fibers.” Biotechnol. Bioeng., 101 609–621 (2008) Schulte, VA, Diez, M, Hu, Y, Möller, M, Lensen, MC, “The Combined Influence of Substrate Stiffness and Surface Topography on the Anti-adhesive Properties of Acr-sP(EO-stat-PO) Hydrogels.” Biomacromolecules, 11 3375–3383 (2010) Holmes, PF, Currie, EPK, Thies, JC, van der Mei, HC, Busscher, HJ, Norde, W, “Surface-Modified Nanoparticles as a New, Versatile, and Mechanically Robust Nonadhesive Coating: Suppression of Protein Adsorption and Bacterial Adhesion.” J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part A, 824–833 (2009) Currie, E, Thies, J, Holmes, P, “Coating Composition, Coating and an Object Coated with the Coating Composition,” Patent Application Number 20080280138 Bosker, WTE, Patzsch, K, Cohen Stuart, MA, Norde, W, “Sweet Brushes and Dirty Proteins.” Soft Matter, 3 745–762 (2007) Mrabet, B, Nguyen, MN, Majbri, A, Mahouche, S, Turmine, M, Bakhrouf, A, Chehimi, MN, “Anti-fouling Poly(2-Hydoxyethyl Methacrylate) Surface Coatings with Specific Bacteria Recognition Capabilities.” Surf. Sci., 603 2422–2429 (2009) Yang, WJ, Cai, T, Neoh, K-G, Kang, E-T, Dickinson, GH, Teo, SL-M, Rittschof, D, “Biomimetic Anchors for Antifouling and Antibacterial Polymer Brushes on Stainless Steel.” Langmuir, 27 7065–7076 (2011) An, Q, Li, F, Li, Y, Chen, H, “Influence of Polyvinyl Alcohol on the Surface Morphology, Separation and Anti-fouling Performance of the Composite Polyamide Nanofiltration Membranes.” J. Membr. Sci., 367 158–165 (2011) Brzozowska, AM, Zhang, Q, de Keizer, A, Norde, W, Cohen Stuart, MA, “Reduction of Protein Adsorption on Silica and Polysulfone Surfaces Coated with Complex Coacervate Core Micelles with Poly(Vinyl Alcohol) as a Neutral Brush Forming Block.” Colloids Surf. A, 368 96–104 (2010) Zhao, C, Zheng, J, “Synthesis and Characterization of Poly(N-hydroxyethylacrylamide) for Long-Term Antifouling Ability.” Biomacromolecules, 12 4071–4079 (2011) Wu, L, Jasinski, J, Krishnan, S, “Carboxybetaine, Sulfobetaine, and Cationic Block Copolymer Coatings: A Comparison of the Surface Properties and Antifouling Behavior.” J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 124 2154–2170 (2012) Zhang, Z, Chen, S, Jiang, S, “Dual-Functional Biomimetic Materials: Nonfouling Poly(Carboxybetaine) with Active Functional Groups for Protein Immobilization.” Biomacromolecules, 7 3311–3315 (2006) Matsuura, K, Ohno, K, Kagaya, S, Kitano, H, “Carboxybetaine Polymer-Protected Gold Nanoparticles: High Dispersion Stability and Resistance against Non-specific Adsorption of Proteins.” Macromol. Chem. Phys., 208 862–873 (2007) Ladd, J, Zhang, Z, Chen, S, Hower, JC, Jiang, S, “Zwitterionic Polymers Exhibiting High Resistance to Nonspecific Protein Adsorption from Human Serum and Plasma.” Biomacromolecules, 9 1357–1361 (2008) Tada, S, Inaba, C, Mizukami, K, Fujishita, S, Gemmei-Ide, M, Kitano, H, Mochizuki, A, Tanaka, M, Matsunaga, T, “Anti-biofouling Properties of Polymers with a Carboxybetaine Moiety.” Macromol. Biosci., 9 63–70 (2009) Dong, Z, Mao, J, Yang, M, Wang, D, Bo, S, Ji, X, “Phase Behavior of Poly(sulfobetaine methacrylate)-Grafted Silica Nanoparticles and their Stability in Protein Solutions.” Langmuir, 27 15282–15291 (2011) Zhang, Z, Chao, T, Chen, S, Jiang, S, “Superlow Fouling Sulfobetaine and Carboxy-Betaine Polymers on Glass Slides.” Langmuir, 22 10072–10077 (2006) Chang, Y, Liao, S-C, Higuchi, A, Ruaan, R-C, Chu, C-W, Chen, W-Y, “A Highly Stable Nonbiofouling Surface with Well-Packed Grafted Zwitterionic Polysulfobetaine for Plasma Protein Repulsion.” Langmuir, 24 5453–5458 (2008) Zhang, Z, Finlay, JA, Wang, L, Gao, Y, Callow, JA, Callow, ME, Jiang, S, “Polysulfobetaine-Grafted Surfaces as Environmentally Benign Ultralow Fouling Marine Coatings.” Langmuir, 25 13516–13521 (2009) Branch, DW, Wheeler, BC, Brewer, GJ, Leckband, DE, “Long-Term Stability of Grafted Polyethylene Glycol Surfaces for Use with Microstamped Substrates in Neuronal Cell Culture.” Biomaterials, 22 1035–1047 (2001) Emoto, K, van Alstine, JM, Harris, JM, “Stability of Poly(Ethylene Glycol) Graft Coatings.” Langmuir, 14 2722–2729 (1998) Nalwa, H, Handbook of Surfaces and Interfaces of Materials. Academic Press, New York, 2001. ISBN 10 0125139101 Baier, RE, DePalma, VA, “The Relationship of the Internal Surface of Grafts to Thrombosis.” In: Dale, WA (ed.) Management of Occlusive Aterial Disease, pp. 147–163. Yearbook Medical Publishers, Chicago, 1971 Sommer, S, Ekina, A, Webster, DC, Stafslien, SJ, Daniels, J, VanderWal, LJ, Thompson, SEM, Callow, ME, Callow, JA, “A Preliminary Study on the Properties and Fouling-Release Performance of Siloxane-Polyurethane Coatings Prepared from PDMS Macromers.” Biofouling, 26 961–972 (2010) Ekin, A, Webster, DC, “Combinatorial and High-Throughput Screening of the Effect of Siloxane Composition on the Surface Properties of Crosslinked Siloxane-Polyurethane Coatings.” J. Comb. Chem., 9 178–188 (2007) Majumdar, P, Stafslien, S, Daniels, J, Webster, DC, “High-Throughput Combinatorial Characterization of Thermosetting Siloxane-Urethane Coatings Having Spontaneously Formed Microtopographical Surfaces.” J. Coat. Technol. Res., 4 131–138 (2007) Majumdar, P, Webster, DC, “The Influence of Siloxane and Extent of Reaction.” Polymer, 48 7499–7509 (2007) Bodkhe, RB, Stafslien, SJ, Cilz, N, Daniels, J, Thompson, SEM, Callow, ME, Callow, JA, Webster, DC, “Polyurethanes with Amphiphilic Surfaces made Using Telechelic Functional PDMS Having Orthogonal Acid Functional Groups.” Prog. Org. Coat., 75 38–48 (2012) Rahman, MM, Chun, H-H, Park, H, “Waterborne Polysiloxane–Urethane–Urea for Potential Marine Coatings.” J. Coat. Technol. Res., 8 389–399 (2011) Majumdar, P, Webster, DC, “Preparation of Siloxane-Urethane Coatings Having Spontaneously Formed Biphasic Microtopographical Surface.” Macromolecules, 38 5857–5859 (2005) Adkins, JD, Mera, AE, Roe-Short, MA, Pawlikowski, GT, Brady, RF, Jr, “Novel Non-toxic Coatings Designed to Resist Marine Fouling.” Prog. Org. Coat., 29 1–5 (1996) Zhang, H, Lamb, R, Lewis, J, “Engineering Nanoscale Roughness on Hydrophobic Surface—Preliminary Assessment of Fouling Behaviour.” Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater., 6 236–239 (2005) Wouters, M, Rentrop, C, Willemsen, P, “Surface Structuring and Coating Performance.” Prog. Org. Coat., 68 4–11 (2010) Brady, RF, Singer, IL, “Mechanical Factors Favouring Release from Fouling Release Coatings.” Biofouling, 15 73–81 (2000) Holland, R, Dugdale, TM, Wetherbee, R, Brennan, AB, Finlay, JA, Callow, JA, Callow, ME, “Adhesion and Motility of Fouling Diatoms on a Silicone Elastomer.” Biofouling, 20 323–329 (2004) Schmidt, DL, Brady, RF, Jr, Lam, K, Schmidt, DC, Chaudhury, MK, “Contact Angle Hysteresis, Adhesion, and Marine Biofouling.” Langmuir, 20 2830–2836 (2004) Chaudhury, MK, Finlay, JA, Jun, YC, Callow, ME, Callow, JA, “The Influence of Elastic Modulus and Thickness on the Release of the Soft-Fouling Green Alga Ulva linza (syn. Enteromorpha linza) from Poly(Dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) Model Networks.” Biofouling, 21 41–48 (2005) http://www.international-marine.com. Joshi, RG, Goel, A, Mannari, VM, Finlay, JA, Callow, ME, Callow, JA, “Evaluating Fouling-Resistance and Fouling-Release Performance of Smart Polyurethane Surfaces: An Outlook for Efficient and Environmentally Benign Marine Coatings.” J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 114 3693–3703 (2009) Wouters, M, van Zanten, J, Vereijken, T, Bakker, D, Klijnstra, J, “Fluorinated Polyurethane Coatings with Adaptable Surface Properties.” Pitt. Vernic., 18 4–13 (2005) Wouters, M, Van Zanten, J, Vereijken, T, Bakker, D, Klijnstra, J, “Fluorinated Polyurethane Coatings with Adaptable Surface Properties.” Surf. Coat. Int. Part B: Coat. Trans., 89 23–30 (2006)