A Simulated Climatology of Asian Dust Aerosol and Its Trans-Pacific Transport. Part I: Mean Climate and Validation
Tóm tắt
The Northern Aerosol Regional Climate Model (NARCM) was used to construct a 44-yr climatology of spring Asian dust aerosol emission, column loading, deposition, trans-Pacific transport routes, and budgets during 1960–2003. Comparisons with available ground dust observations and Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) Aerosol Index (AI) measurements verified that NARCM captured most of the climatological characteristics of the spatial and temporal distributions, as well as the interannual and daily variations of Asian dust aerosol during those 44 yr. Results demonstrated again that the deserts in Mongolia and in western and northern China (mainly the Taklimakan and Badain Juran, respectively) were the major sources of Asian dust aerosol in East Asia. The dust storms in spring occurred most frequently from early April to early May with a daily averaged dust emission (diameter d < 41 μm) of 1.58 Mt in April and 1.36 Mt in May. Asian dust aerosol contributed most of the dust aerosol loading in the troposphere over the midlatitude regions from East Asia to western North America during springtime. Climatologically, dry deposition was a dominant dust removal process near the source areas, while the removal of dust particles by precipitation was the major process over the trans-Pacific transport pathway (where wet deposition exceeded dry deposition up to a factor of 20). The regional transport of Asian dust aerosol over the Asian subcontinent was entrained to an elevation of <3 km. The frontal cyclone in Mongolia and northern China uplifted dust aerosol in the free troposphere for trans-Pacific transport. Trans-Pacific dust transport peaked between 3 and 10 km in the troposphere along a zonal transport axis around 40°N. Based on the 44-yr-averaged dust budgets for the modeling domain from East Asia to western North America, it was estimated that of the average spring dust aerosol (diameter d < 41 μm) emission of ∼120 Mt from Asian source regions, about 51% was redeposited onto the source regions, 21% was deposited onto nondesert regions within the Asian subcontinent, and 26% was exported from the Asian subcontinent to the Pacific Ocean. In total, 16% of Asian dust aerosol emission was deposited into the North Pacific, while ∼3% of Asian dust aerosol was carried to the North American continent via trans-Pacific transport.
Từ khóa
Tài liệu tham khảo
Alfaro, 2001, Modeling mineral aerosol production by wind erosion: Emission intensities and aerosol size distribution in source areas., J. Geophys. Res., 106, 18075, 10.1029/2000JD900339
An, 1990, The long-term paleomonsoon variation recorded by the loess-paleosol sequence in central China., Quat. Int., 718, 91
Bergametti, G. , 1998: Mineral aerosols: Renewed interest for climate forcing and tropospheric chemistry studies. IGACtivities Newsletter, No. 1, IGAC Core Project Office, 13–17.
Chen, 1999, Dust fall in the Taklamakan Desert of China., Phys. Geogr., 20, 189, 10.1080/02723646.1999.10642676
Chun, 2001, Synopsis, transport and physical characteristics of Asian dust in Korea., J. Geophys. Res., 106, 18461, 10.1029/2001JD900184
Chung, 1992, On the observation of yellow sand in Korea., Atmos. Environ., 26A, 2743, 10.1016/0960-1686(92)90010-I
Chung, 2003, Atmospheric loadings, concentrations and visibility associated with sandstorms: Satellite and meteorological analysis., Water Air Soil Pollut. Focus, 3, 21, 10.1023/A:1023261717206
Dentener, 1996, Role of mineral aerosols as a reactive surface in the global troposphere., J. Geophys. Res., 101, 22869, 10.1029/96JD01818
Ding, 1994, Monsoons over China.
Duce, 1980, Long-range atmospheric transport of soil dust from Asia to the tropical North Pacific: Temporal variability., Science, 209, 1522, 10.1126/science.209.4464.1522
Ginoux, 2001, Sources and distributions of dust aerosols simulated with the GOCART model., J. Geophys. Res., 106, 20255, 10.1029/2000JD000053
Gong, 2003, Characterization of soil dust distributions in China and its transport during ACE-ASIA: 2. Model simulation and validation., J. Geophys. Res., 108
Gong, 2003, Canadian Aerosol Module: A size segregated simulation of atmospheric aerosol processes for climate and air quality models: 1. Module development., J. Geophys. Res., 108, 10.1029/2001JD002002
Gong, 2006, A simulated climatology of Asian dust aerosol and its trans-Pacific transport. Part II: Interannual variability and climate connections., J. Climate, 19, 104, 10.1175/JCLI3606.1
Holzer, 2003, Springtime trans-Pacific atmospheric transport from east Asia: A transit-time probability density function approach., J. Geophys. Res., 108, 10.1029/2003JD003558
Husar, 1997, Characterization of tropospheric aerosols over the oceans with the NOAA Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer optical thickness operational product., J. Geophys. Res., 102, 16889, 10.1029/96JD04009
Levin, 1996, The effects of desert particles coated with sulfate on rain formation in the eastern Mediterranean., J. Appl. Meteor., 35, 1511, 10.1175/1520-0450(1996)035<1511:TEODPC>2.0.CO;2
Liu, 2003, A high-resolution numerical study of the Asian dust storms of April 2001., J. Geophys. Res., 108, 10.1029/2002JD003178
Liu, 1985, Loess and the Environment.
Luo, 2003, Sensitivity study of meteorological parameters on mineral aerosol mobilization, transport, and distribution., J. Geophys. Res., 108, 10.1029/2003JD003483
Mahowald, 2003, Interannual variability in atmospheric mineral aerosols from a 22-year model simulation and observational data., J. Geophys. Res., 108, 10.1029/2002JD002821
Marticorena, 1995, Modeling the atmospheric dust cycle. Part 1: Design of a soil-derived dust emission scheme., J. Geophys. Res., 100, 16415, 10.1029/95JD00690
Marticorena, 1997, Modeling the atmospheric dust cycle. Part 2: Simulation of Saharan dust sources., J. Geophys. Res., 102, 4387, 10.1029/96JD02964
McFarlane, 1992, The Canadian Climate Centre second-generation general circulation model and its equilibrium climate., J. Climate, 5, 1013, 10.1175/1520-0442(1992)005<1013:TCCCSG>2.0.CO;2
Merrill, 1989, Meteorological analysis of long-range transport of mineral aerosol over the North Pacific., J. Geophys. Res., 94, 8584, 10.1029/JD094iD06p08584
Merrill, 1994, Mineralogy of aeolian dust reaching the North Pacific Ocean: 2. Relationship of mineral assemblages to atmospheric transport patterns., J. Geophys. Res., 99, 21025, 10.1029/94JD01734
Moulin, 1998, Satellite climatology of African dust transport in the Mediterranean atmosphere., J. Geophys. Res., 103, 13137, 10.1029/98JD00171
Natsagdorj, 2003, Analysis of dust storms observed in Mongolia during 1937–1999., Atmos. Environ., 37, 1401, 10.1016/S1352-2310(02)01023-3
Prospero, 1981, Eolian transport to the World Ocean.
Prospero, 2002, Environmental characterization of global sources of atmospheric soil dust identified with the NIMBUS-7 Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) absorbing aerosol product., Rev. Geophys., 40, 10.1029/2000RG000095
Qian, 2002, Variability of the dust storm in China and climatic control., J. Climate, 15, 1216, 10.1175/1520-0442(2002)015<1216:VOTDSI>2.0.CO;2
Robert, 1985, A semi-Lagrangian and semi-implicit numerical integration scheme for multilevel atmospheric models., Mon. Wea. Rev., 113, 388, 10.1175/1520-0493(1985)113<0388:ASLASI>2.0.CO;2
Sokolik, 1996, Direct radiative forcing by anthropogenic airborne mineral aerosols., Nature, 381, 681, 10.1038/381681a0
Sokolik, 2001, Introduction to special section: Outstanding problems in quantifying the radiative impacts of mineral dust., J. Geophys. Res., 106, 18015, 10.1029/2000JD900498
Sun, 2001, Spatial and temporal characteristics of dust storms in China and its surrounding regions, 1960–1999: Relations to source area and climate., J. Geophys. Res., 106, 10325, 10.1029/2000JD900665
Sun, 2003, Climatology, trend analysis and prediction of sandstorm and their associated dustfall in China., Water Air Soil Pollut. Focus, 3, 41, 10.1023/A:1023213801276
Takmura, 2002, Modeling study of long-range transport of Asian dust and anthropogenic aerosols from East Asia., Geophys. Res. Lett., 29
Tegen, 1994, Modeling of mineral dust in the atmosphere: Sources, transport, and optical thickness., J. Geophys. Res., 99, 22897, 10.1029/94JD01928
Tegen, 1998, A general circulation model study on the interannual variability of soil dust aerosol., J. Geophys. Res., 103, 25975, 10.1029/98JD02345
Uematsu, 1983, Transport of mineral aerosol from Asia over the North Pacific Ocean., J. Geophys. Res., 88, 5343, 10.1029/JC088iC09p05343
Uno, 2003, Regional chemical weather forecasting system CFORS: Model descriptions and analysis of surface observations at Japanese island stations during the ACE-Asia experiment., J. Geophys. Res., 108, 10.1029/2002JD002845
Verseghy, 1991, CLASS—A Canadian land surface scheme for GCMS. I: Soil model., Int. J. Climatol., 11, 111, 10.1002/joc.3370110202
Xuan, 2002, Characterization of sources and emission rates of mineral dust in Northern China., Atmos. Environ., 36, 4863, 10.1016/S1352-2310(02)00585-X
Zender, 2003, Mineral Dust Entrainment and Deposition (DEAD) model: Description and 1990s dust climatology., J. Geophys. Res., 108, 10.1029/2002JD002775
Zhang, 1993, Atmospheric trace elements over source regions for Chinese dust: Concentrations, sources and atmospheric deposition on the Loess Plateau., Atmos. Environ., 27, 2051, 10.1016/0960-1686(93)90277-6
Zhang, 1996, Remote mineral aerosol in westerlies and their contributions to Chinese loess., Sci. China, 39D, 67
Zhang, 1996, Elemental tracers for Chinese source dust., Sci. China, 39D, 512
Zhang, 1997, Dust emission from Chinese desert sources linked to variations in atmospheric circulation., J. Geophys. Res., 102, 28041, 10.1029/97JD02300
Zhang, 1998, Concentration, size-distribution and deposition of mineral aerosol over Chinese desert regions., Tellus, 50B, 317, 10.3402/tellusb.v50i4.16131
Zhang, 2003, Sources of Asian dust and role of climate change versus desertification in Asian dust emission., Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 10.1029/2003GL018206
Zhang, 2003, Characterization of soil dust distributions in China and its transport during ACE-ASIA: 1. Network observations., J. Geophys. Res., 108
Zhao, 2004, Relationship between climatic factors and dust storm frequency in the Inner Mongolia of China., Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, 10.1029/2003GL018351
Zhao, 2003, Modeled size segregated wet and dry deposition budgets of soil dust aerosol during ACE-Asia 2001: Implications for trans-Pacific transport., J. Geophys. Res., 108, 10.1029/2002JD003363
Zhou, 2001, Blowing sand storm in China in recent 45 years (in Chinese)., Quat. Sci., 21, 9