BETR North America: A regionally segmented multimedia contaminant fate model for North America
Tóm tắt
We present the Berkeley-Trent North American contaminant fate model (BETR North America), a regionally segmented multimedia contaminant fate model based on the fugacity concept. The model is built on a framework that links contaminant fate models of individual regions, and is generally applicable to large, spatially heterogeneous areas. The North American environment is modeled as 24 ecological regions, within each region contaminant fate is described using a 7 compartment multimedia fugacity model including a vertically segmented atmosphere, freshwater, freshwater sediment, soil, coastal water and vegetation compartments. Inter-regional transport of contaminants in the atmosphere, freshwater and coastal water is described using a database of hydrological and meteorological data compiled with Geographical Information Systems (GIS) techniques. Steady-state and dynamic solutions to the 168 mass balance equations that make up the linked model for North America are discussed, and an illustrative case study of toxaphene transport from the southern United States to the Great Lakes Basin is presented. Regionally segmented models such as BETR North America can provide a critical link between evaluative models of long-range transport potential and contaminant concentrations observed in remote regions. The continent-scale mass balance calculated by the model provides a sound basis for evaluating long-range transport potential of organic pollutants, and formulation of continent-scale management and regulatory strategies for chemicals.
Tài liệu tham khảo
Bennett D, McKone T, Matthies M, Kastenberg W (1998): General formulation of characteristic travel distance for semivolatile organic chemicals in a multimedia environment. Environmental Science and Technology 32, 4023–4030
Beyer A, Mackay D, Matthies M, Wania F, Webster E (2000): Assessing long-range transport potential of persistent organic pollutants. Environmental Science and Technology 34, 699–703
Cousins I, Mackay D (2001): Strategies for including vegetation compartments in multimedia models. Chemosphere 44, 643–654
Feijtel T, Boeije B, Matthies M, Young A, Morris G, Gandolfi C, Hansen B, Fox K, Holt M, Koch V, Schröder R, Cassani G, Schowanek D, Rosenblom J, Niessen H (1997): Development of a geography-referenced regional exposure assessment tool for European rivers — GREAT-ER. Chemosphere 34, 2351–2373
Gobas F, Pasternak J, Lien K, Duncan R (1998): Development and field validation of a multimedia exposure assessment model for waste load allocation in aquatic ecosystems: Application to 2, 3, 7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin and 2, 3, 7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzofuran in the Fraser River watershed. Environmental Science and Technology 32, 2442–2449
Harner T, Bidleman T, Jantunen L, Mackay D (2001): Soil-air exchange model of persistent pesticides in the US cotton belt. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 20, 1612–1621
Hertwich E (2001): Intermittent rainfall in dynamic multimedia fate modeling. Environmental Science and Technology 35, 936–940
Hillery B, Hoff R, Hites R (1997): Atmospheric contaminant deposition to the Great Lakes determined from the integrated atmospheric deposition network. pp 227–291 in: Atmospheric deposition of contaminants to the Great Lakes and coastal waters. Baker JE, ed SETAC Press, Pensacola, Florida, USA
HYSPLIT4 (HYbrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory) Model (1997): Web address:http://www.arl.noaa.gov/ ready/hysplit4.html. NOAA Air Resources Laboratory, Silver Spring, MD
Jantunen L, Bidleman T, Harner T, Parkhurst W (2000): Toxaphene, chlordane, and other organochlorine pesticides in Alabama air. Environmental Science and Technology 34, 5097–5105
Mackay D, Paterson S, Di Guardo A, Cowan CE (1996a): Evaluating the environmental fate of a variety of types of chemicals using the EQC model. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 15, 1627–1637
Mackay D, Paterson S, Kicsi G, Cowan CE, Di Guardo A, Kane DM (1996b): Assessment of chemical fate in the environment using evaluative, regional and local-scale models: Illustrative application to chlorobenzene and linear alkylbenzene sulfonates. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 15, 1638–1648
Mackay D, Shiu WY, Ma KC (2000): Physical chemical properties and environmental fate and degradation handbook. Chapman & Hall CRCnetBASE, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida
Mackay D (2001): Multimedia environmental models: The fugacity approach. 2nd ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, USA
McKone T (1993): CalTOX, a multimedia total-exposure model for hazardous waste sites. UCRL-CR-111456. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, USA
Merck and Co Inc (1989): The Merck Index, 11th ed. Merck and Co Inc, Rahway, New Jersey, USA
OMEE (Ontario Ministry of Environment and Energy) (1993): Candidate substances for bans, phase-outs or reductions — multimedia revision. Hazardous contaminants branch and water resources branch, Queen’s printer for Ontario, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
RIVM (Institute of Public Health and the Environment, The Netherlands) (1996): EUSES — The European union system for the evaluation of substances. Available from the European Chemicals Bureau, Ispra, Italy
Scheringer M (1996): Persistence and spatial range as endpoints of an exposure-based assessment of organic chemicals. Environmental Science and Technology 30, 1652–1659
Scheringer M, Wegmann F, Fenner K, Hungerbuhler K (2000): Investigation of the cold condensation of persistent organic pollutants with a global multimedia fate model. Environmental Science and Technology 34, 1842–1850
Schulze C, Matthies M, Trapp S, Schröder F (1999): Geo-referenced fate modeling of LAS in the Itter Stream. Chemosphere 39, 1833–1852
Schulze C, Matthies M (2001): Geo-referenced aquatic fate simulation of cleaning agent and detergent ingredients in the Rur catchment (Germany). The Science of the Total Environment (in press)
Wania F, Mackay D (1995): A global distribution model for persistent organic chemicals. The Science of the Total Environment 160/161, 211–232
Wania F, Mackay D, Li YF, Bidleman T, Strand A (1999): Global chemical fate of α-hexachlorocyclohexane. 1. Evaluation of a global distribution model. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 18, 1390–1399
Wania F, Persson J, Di Guardo A, McLachlan M (2000a): CoZMoPOP, A fugacity-based multicompartmental mass balance model of the fate of persistent organic pollutants in the coastal zone. WECC Report 1/2000, available athttp://www.scar.utoronto.ca/
Wania F, Persson J, Di Guardo A, McLachlan M (2000b): The POPCYCLING-Baltic model, a non-steady state multicompartment mass balance model of the fate of persistent organic pollutants in the Baltic Sea environment. Norwegian Institute for Air Research (NILU), Reference number U-96069
Woodfine D, MacLeod M, Mackay D, Brimacombe J (2001): Development of continental scale multimedia contaminant fate models: Integrating GIS. ESPR — Environmental Science and Pollution Research 8 (3) 164–172