A review of toxicity and mechanisms of individual and mixtures of heavy metals in the environment

Agrawal S, Flora G, Bhatnagar P, Flora S (2014) Comparative oxidative stress, metallothionein induction and organ toxicity following chronic exposure to arsenic, lead and mercury in rats. Cell Mol Biol (Noisy-le-Grand, France) 60:13 Ahamed M, Verma S, Kumar A, Siddiqui M (2005) Environmental exposure to lead and its correlation with biochemical indices in children. Sci Total Environ 346:48–55 Ahmed MK, Habibullah-Al-Mamun M, Parvin E, Akter MS, Khan MS (2013) Arsenic induced toxicity and histopathological changes in gill and liver tissue of freshwater fish, tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus). Exp Toxicol Pathol 65:903–909, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.etp.2013.01.003 Alloway BJ (2013) Bioavailability of elements in soil. Essentials of medical geology. Springer 2013:351–73 Altenburger R, Backhaus T, Boedeker W, Faust M, Scholze M, Grimme LH (2000) Predictability of the toxicity of multiple chemical mixtures to Vibrio fischeri: mixtures composed of similarly acting chemicals. Environ Toxicol Chem 19:2341–2347 Altenburger R, Nendza M, Schüürmann G (2003) Mixture toxicity and its modeling by quantitative structure‐activity relationships. Environ Toxicol Chem 22:1900–1915 Altenburger R, Backhaus T, Boedeker W, Faust M, Scholze M (2013) Simplifying complexity: mixture toxicity assessment in the last 20 years. Environ Toxicol Chem 32:1685–1687 Arabi M, Mohammadpour A (2006) Adverse effects of cadmium on bull spermatozoa. Vet Res Commun 30:943–951 Backhaus T, Altenburger R, Boedeker W, Faust M, Scholze M, Grimme LH (2000) Predictability of the toxicity of a multiple mixture of dissimilarly acting chemicals to Vibrio fischeri. Environ Toxicol Chem 19:2348–2356 Balistrieri LS, Mebane CA (2014) Predicting the toxicity of metal mixtures. Sci Total Environ 466:788–799 Baranowska-Bosiacka I et al (2009) Inhibition of erythrocyte phosphoribosyltransferases (APRT and HPRT) by Pb2+: a potential mechanism of lead toxicity. Toxicology 259:77–83 Basile A, Sorbo S, Conte B, Cobianchi RC, Trinchella F, Capasso C, Carginale V (2012) Toxicity, accumulation, and removal of heavy metals by three aquatic macrophytes. Int J Phytorem 14:374–387 Belden JB, Gilliom RJ, Lydy MJ (2007) How well can we predict the toxicity of pesticide mixtures to aquatic life? Integr Environ Assess Manage 3:364–372 Benson NU, Anake WU, Olanrewaju IO (2013) Analytical relevance of trace metal speciation in environmental and biophysicochemical systems. Am J Anal Chem 4:633–641 Beyer J, Petersen K, Song Y, Ruus A, Grung M, Bakke T, Tollefsen KE (2013) Environmental risk assessment of combined effects in aquatic ecotoxicology: a discussion paper. Mar Environ Res 96:81–91 Blakey DH et al (2013) A screening tool to prioritize public health risk associated with accidental or deliberate release of chemicals into the atmosphere. BMC Public Health 13:253 Boelsterli UA (2003) Diclofenac-induced liver injury: a paradigm of idiosyncratic drug toxicity. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 192:307–322 Boelsterli UA (2007) Mechanistic toxicology: the molecular basis of how chemicals disrupt biological targets. CRC Press. Borgert CJ, Quill TF, McCarty LS, Mason AM (2004) Can mode of action predict mixture toxicity for risk assessment? Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 201:85–96 Boucher O et al (2014) Domain-specific effects of prenatal exposure to PCBs, mercury, and lead on infant cognition: results from the Environmental Contaminants and Child Development Study in Nunavik. Environ Health Perspect 122:310–316 Bustaffa E, Stoccoro A, Bianchi F, Migliore L (2014) Genotoxic and epigenetic mechanisms in arsenic carcinogenicity. Arch Toxicol 88:1043–1067 Calmano W, Hong J, Förstner U (1993) Binding and mobilization of heavy metals in contaminated sediments affected by pH and redox potential. Water Sci Technol 28:223–223 Campbel P (1995) Interactions between trace metals and aquatic organisms: a critique of the free-ion activity model. Metal speciation and bioavailability in aquatic systems Carocci A, Rovito N, Sinicropi MS, Genchi G (2014) Mercury toxicity and neurodegenerative effects. In: Reviews of environmental contamination and toxicology. Springer, pp. 1–18 Carpenter DO, Arcaro K, Spink DC (2002) Understanding the human health effects of chemical mixtures. Environ Health Perspect 110:25–42 Charles J, Crini G, Degiorgi F, Sancey B, Morin-Crini N, Badot P-M (2014) Unexpected toxic interactions in the freshwater amphipod Gammarus pulex (L.) exposed to binary copper and nickel mixtures. Environ Sci Pollut Res 21:1099–1111 Chen J et al (2012) Developmental lead acetate exposure induces embryonic toxicity and memory deficit in adult zebrafish. Neurotoxicol Teratol 34:581–586 Chen J et al (2013) Comparison of two mathematical prediction models in assessing the toxicity of heavy metal mixtures to the feeding of the nematode (Caenorhabditis elegans). Ecotoxicol Environ Safe 94:73–79 Choy M-K, Movassagh M, Goh H-G, Bennett MR, Down TA, Foo RS (2010) Genome-wide conserved consensus transcription factor binding motifs are hyper-methylated. BMC Genomics 11:519 Coecke S et al (2013) Toxicokinetics as a key to the integrated toxicity risk assessment based primarily on non-animal approaches. Toxicol in Vitro 27:1570–1577 Das H, Mitra AK, Sengupta P, Hossain A, Islam F, Rabbani G (2004) Arsenic concentrations in rice, vegetables, and fish in Bangladesh: a preliminary study. Environ Int 30:383–387 de Orte MR, Sarmiento AM, Basallote MD, Rodríguez-Romero A, Riba I, delValls A (2014) Effects on the mobility of metals from acidification caused by possible CO2+ leakage from sub-seabed geological formations. Sci Total Environ 470:356–363 Delnomdedieu M, Basti MM, Styblo M, Otvos JD, Thomas DJ (1994) Complexation of arsenic species in rabbit. Chem Res Toxicol 7:621–627 Di Toro DM, Allen HE, Bergman HL, Meyer JS, Paquin PR, Santore RC (2001) Biotic ligand model of the acute toxicity of metals. 1. Technical basis. Environ Toxicol Chem 20:2383–2396 Dixon HB (1997) The biochemical action of arsonic acids especially as phosphate analogues. Adv Inorg Chem 44:191–228 Domínguez-Cortinas G, Díaz-Barriga F, Martínez-Salinas RI, Cossío P, Pérez-Maldonado IN (2013) Exposure to chemical mixtures in Mexican children: high-risk scenarios. Environ Sci Pollut Res 20:351–357 Dopp E, von Recklinghausen U, Diaz-Bone R, Hirner A, Rettenmeier A (2010) Cellular uptake, subcellular distribution and toxicity of arsenic compounds in methylating and non-methylating cells. Environ Res 110:435–442 Dorne JL, Ragas A, Frampton G, Spurgeon D, Lewis D (2007) Trends in human risk assessment of pharmaceuticals. Anal Bioanal Chem 387:1167–1172 Drescher K, Boedeker W (1995) Assessment of the combined effects of substances: the relationship between concentration addition and independent action. Biometrics 51:716–730 Easwaran H, Baylin SB (2013) Epigenetic abnormalities in cancer find a “home on the range”. Cancer Cell 23:1–3 Egger G, Liang G, Aparicio A, Jones PA (2004) Epigenetics in human disease and prospects for epigenetic therapy. Nature 429:457–463 Eggleton J, Thomas KV (2004) A review of factors affecting the release and bioavailability of contaminants during sediment disturbance events. Environ Int 30:973–980, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2004.03.001 El-Nekeety AA, El-Kady AA, Soliman MS, Hassan NS, Abdel-Wahhab MA (2009) Protective effect of Aquilegia vulgaris (L.) against lead acetate-induced oxidative stress in rats. Food Chem Toxicol 47:2209–2215 Ercal N, Gurer-Orhan H, Aykin-Burns N (2001) Toxic metals and oxidative stress part I: mechanisms involved in metal-induced oxidative damage. Cur Top Med Chem 1:529–539 Esteller M (2011) Non-coding RNAs in human disease. Nat Rev Genet 12:861–874 Fan W, Wang W-X, Chen J, Li X, Yen Y-F (2002) Cu, Ni, and Pb speciation in surface sediments from a contaminated bay of Northern China. Mar Pollut Bull 44:820–826 Farina M, Campos F, Vendrell I, Berenguer J, Barzi M, Pons S, Suñol C (2009) Probucol increases glutathione peroxidase-1 activity and displays long-lasting protection against methylmercury toxicity in cerebellar granule cells. Toxicol Sci 112:416–426 Farina M, Rocha JB, Aschner M (2011) Mechanisms of methylmercury-induced neurotoxicity: evidence from experimental studies. Life S ci 89:555–563 Fathallah S, Medhioub MN, Kraiem MM (2013) Combined toxicity of lead and cadmium on embryogenesis and early larval stages of the European clam Ruditapes decussatus. Environ Eng Sci 30:357–364 Faulk C, Barks A, Sánchez BN, Zhang Z, Anderson OS, Peterson KE, Dolinoy DC (2014) Perinatal lead (Pb) exposure results in sex-specific effects on food intake, fat, weight, and insulin response across the murine life-course. PLoS One 9:e104273 Feki-Tounsi M, Olmedo P, Gil F, Khlifi R, Mhiri M-N, Rebai A, Hamza-Chaffai A (2013) Cadmium in blood of Tunisian men and risk of bladder cancer: interactions with arsenic exposure and smoking. Environ Sci Pollut Res 20:7204–7213 Feldkamp ML, Srisukhumbowornchai S, Romitti PA, Olney RS, Richardson SD, Botto LD (2014) Self‐reported maternal cigarette smoke exposure during the periconceptional period and the risk for omphalocoele. Paediatr Perinat Ep 28:67–73 Fowler BA (1993) Mechanisms of kidney cell injury from metals. Environ Health Perspect 100:57–63 Gargouri M, Magné C, Dauvergne X, Ksouri R, El Feki A, Metges M-AG, Talarmin H (2013) Cytoprotective and antioxidant effects of the edible halophyte Sarcocornia perennis L. (swampfire) against lead-induced toxicity in renal cells. Ecotox Environ Safe 95:44–51 Golding J, Steer CD, Hibbeln JR, Emmett PM, Lowery T, Jones R (2013) Dietary predictors of maternal prenatal blood mercury levels in the ALSPAC birth cohort study. Environ Health Perspect 121:1214–1218 Goldman SM (2014) Environmental toxins and Parkinson’s disease. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 54:141–164 Grandjean P, Weihe P, Debes F, Choi AL, Budtz-Jørgensen E (2014) Neurotoxicity from prenatal and postnatal exposure to methylmercury. Neurotoxicol Teratol 43:39–44 Guzzi G, La Porta CA (2008) Molecular mechanisms triggered by mercury. Toxicology 244:1–12 Hambach R et al (2013) Co-exposure to lead increases the renal response to low levels of cadmium in metallurgy workers. Toxicol Lett 222:233–238 Hamelink J, Landrum PF, Bergman H, Benson WH (1994) Bioavailability: physical, chemical, and biological interactions. CRC Press. He J et al (2013) Repression of miR-143 mediates Cr (VI)-induced tumor angiogenesis via IGF-IR/IRS1/ERK/IL-8 pathway. Toxicol Sci 134:26–38 He J et al (2014) Chronic arsenic exposure and angiogenesis in human bronchial epithelial cells via the ROS/miR-199a-5p/HIF-1α/COX-2 pathway. Environ Health Perspect 122:255–261 Hernández-García A, Romero D, Gómez-Ramírez P, María-Mojica P, Martínez-López E, García-Fernández A (2014) In vitro evaluation of cell death induced by cadmium, lead and their binary mixtures on erythrocytes of common buzzard (Buteo buteo). Toxicol in Vitro 28:300–306 Hsu P-C, Guo YL (2002) Antioxidant nutrients and lead toxicity. Toxicology 180:33–44 Hu L, Greer JB, Solo-Gabriele H, Fieber LA, Cai Y (2013) Arsenic toxicity in the human nerve cell line SK-N-SH in the presence of chromium and copper. Chemosphere 91:1082–1087 Hubaux R, Becker-Santos DD, Enfield KS, Rowbotham D, Lam S, Lam WL, Martinez VD (2013) Molecular features in arsenic-induced lung tumors. Mol Cancer 12:20 Hughes MF, Beck BD, Chen Y, Lewis AS, Thomas DJ (2011) Arsenic exposure and toxicology: a historical perspective. Toxicol Sci 123:305–332 Inakollu S, Hung H-C, Shreve GS (2004) Biosurfactant enhancement of microbial degradation of various structural classes of hydrocarbon in mixed waste systems. Environ Eng Sci 21:463–469 Jadhav S, Sarkar S, Tripathi H (2006) Cytogenetic effects of a mixture of selected metals following subchronic exposure through drinking water in male rats. Ind J Exp Biol 44:997 Jadhav S, Sarkar S, Patil R, Tripathi H (2007a) Effects of subchronic exposure via drinking water to a mixture of eight water-contaminating metals: a biochemical and histopathological study in male rats. Arch Environ Con Tox 53:667–677 Jadhav S, Sarkar S, Ram G, Tripathi H (2007b) Immunosuppressive effect of subchronic exposure to a mixture of eight heavy metals, found as groundwater contaminants in different areas of India, through drinking water in male rats. Arch Environ Con Tox 53:450–458 Jadhav SH, Sarkar SN, Kataria M, Tripathi HC (2007c) Subchronic exposure to a mixture of groundwater-contaminating metals through drinking water induces oxidative stress in male rats. Environ Toxicol Phar 23:205–211 Jomova K, Valko M (2011) Advances in metal-induced oxidative stress and human disease. Toxicology 283:65–87 Jones EA, Wright JM, Rice G, Buckley BT, Magsumbol MS, Barr DB, Williams BL (2010) Metal exposures in an inner-city neonatal population. Environ Int 36:649–654 Judah L, Marin R, Stroup D, Wesdemiotis C, Bose RN (2014) DNA damage by oxo-and peroxo-chromium(V) complexes: insight into the mutation and carcinogenesis mechanisms. Toxicol Res 3:56–66 Kang M-Y, Cho S-H, Lim Y-H, Seo J-C, Hong Y-C (2013) Effects of environmental cadmium exposure on liver function in adults. Occ Environ Med 70:268–273 Katayama A et al. (2010) Bioavailability of xenobiotics in the soil environment. In: Reviews of environmental contamination and toxicology. Springer, pp. 1–86 Kitchin KT, Conolly R (2009) Arsenic-induced carcinogenesis oxidative stress as a possible mode of action and future research needs for more biologically based risk assessment. Chem Res Toxicol 23:327–335 Koedrith P, Kim H, Weon J-I, Seo YR (2013) Toxicogenomic approaches for understanding molecular mechanisms of heavy metal mutagenicity and carcinogenicity. Int J Hyg Environ Heal 216:587–598 Koh D-H et al (2014) Calibrating a population-based job-exposure matrix using inspection measurements to estimate historical occupational exposure to lead for a population-based cohort in Shanghai, China. J Exp Sci Env Epid 24:9–16 Korsloot A, Van Gestel CA, Van Straalen NM (2004) Environmental stress and cellular response in arthropods. CRC Press. Kortenkamp A (2008) Low dose mixture effects of endocrine disrupters: implications for risk assessment and epidemiology. Int J Androl 31:233–240 Kovacic P, Somanathan R (2014) Recent developments in the mechanism of teratogenesis–electron transfer, reactive oxygen species, and antioxidants. Systems Biology of Free Radicals and Antioxidants 567–580 Lantz RC, Hays AM (2006) Role of oxidative stress in arsenic-induced toxicity. Drug Metab Rev 38:791–804 Le MT, Hassanin M, Mahadeo M, Gailer J, Prenner EJ (2013a) Hg-and Cd-induced modulation of lipid packing and monolayer fluidity in biomimetic erythrocyte model systems. Chem Phys Lipids 170:46–54 Le T-H et al (2013b) Proteomic analysis in Daphnia magna exposed to As(III), As(V) and Cd heavy metals and their binary mixtures for screening potential biomarkers. Chemosphere 93:2341–2348 Liao C, Tsai J, Ling M, Liang H, Chou Y, Yang P (2004) Organ-specific toxicokinetics and dose–response of arsenic in tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus. Arch Environ Con Tox 47:502–510 Lin S, Cullen WR, Thomas DJ (1999) Methylarsenicals and arsinothiols are potent inhibitors of mouse liver thioredoxin reductase. Chem Res Toxicol 12:924–930 Liu J, Qu W, Kadiiska MB (2009) Role of oxidative stress in cadmium toxicity and carcinogenesis. Toxicol Appl Pharm 238:209–214 Llop J, Estrela‐Lopis I, Ziolo RF, González A, Fleddermann J, Dorn M, Vallejo VG, Simon‐Vazquez R, Donath E, Mao Z (2014) Uptake, biological fate, and toxicity of metal oxide nanoparticles. Part Part Syst Char 31:24–35 Løkke H, Ragas AM, Holmstrup M (2013) Tools and perspectives for assessing chemical mixtures and multiple stressors. Toxicology 313:73–82 Lu K et al (2014) Arsenic exposure perturbs the gut microbiome and its metabolic profile in mice: an integrated metagenomics and metabolomics analysis. Environ Health Perspect 122:284–291 Luo W, Verweij RA, van Gestel CA (2014) Determining the bioavailability and toxicity of lead contamination to earthworms requires using a combination of physicochemical and biological methods. Environ Pollut 185:1–9 Lydy MJ, Belden JB, Ternes MA (1999) Effects of temperature on the toxicity of M-parathion, chlorpyrifos, and pentachlorobenzene to Chironomus tentans. Arch Environ Con Tox 37:542–547. doi:10.1007/s002449900550 Marsano F, Boatti L, Ranzato E, Cavaletto M, Magnelli V, Dondero F, Viarengo A (2010) Effects of mercury on Dictyostelium discoideum: proteomics reveals the molecular mechanisms of physiological adaptation and toxicity. J Proteome Res 9:2839–2854 Martínez-Pacheco M, Hidalgo-Miranda A, Romero-Córdoba S, Valverde M, Rojas E (2014) mRNA and miRNA expression patterns associated to pathways linked to metal mixture health effects. Gene 533:508–514 Mohapatra P et al (2014) The contribution of heavy metals in cigarette smoke condensate to malignant transformation of breast epithelial cells and in vivo initiation of neoplasia through induction of a PI3K–AKT–NFκB cascade. Toxicol Appl Pharm 274:168–179 Mousa AM, Al-Fadhli AS, Rao MS, Kilarkaje N (2014) Gestational lead exposure induces developmental abnormalities and up-regulates apoptosis of fetal cerebellar cells in rats. Drug Chem Toxicol 38:33–83 Mulware SJ (2013) Trace elements and carcinogenicity: a subject in review. 3 Biotech 3:85–96 Naujokas MF, Anderson B, Ahsan H, Aposhian HV, Graziano JH, Thompson C, Suk WA (2013) The broad scope of health effects from chronic arsenic exposure: update on a worldwide public health problem. Environ Health Perspect 121:295–302 Nawrot TS et al (2010) Cadmium exposure in the population: from health risks to strategies of prevention. Biometals 23:769–782 Nikinmaa M (2014) Chapter 6—factors affecting the bioavailability of chemicals. In: Nikinmaa M (ed) An introduction to aquatic toxicology. Academic, Oxford, pp 65–72, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-411574-3.00006-2 Nordberg GF, Jin T, Hong F, Zhang A, Buchet J-P, Bernard A (2005) Biomarkers of cadmium and arsenic interactions. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 206(2):191–197 Notarachille G, Arnesano F, Calò V, Meleleo D (2014) Heavy metals toxicity: effect of cadmium ions on amyloid beta protein 1–42. Possible implications for Alzheimer’s disease. BioMetals 27:371–388 Nyland JF et al (2011) Biomarkers of methylmercury exposure immunotoxicity among fish consumers in Amazonian Brazil. Environ Health Perspect 119:1733–1738 Oguma A, Klerks P (2013) The role of native salinity regime on grass shrimp (Palaemonetes pugio) sensitivity to cadmium. Ecotoxicology 22:279–286. doi:10.1007/s10646-012-1024-y Olmstead AW, LeBlanc GA (2005) Toxicity assessment of environmentally relevant pollutant mixtures using a heuristic model. Int Environ Asses Mgt 1:114–122 Patrick L (2003) Toxic metals and antioxidants: part II. The role of antioxidants in arsenic and cadmium toxicity. Altern Med Rev 8:106–128 Patrick L (2006) Lead toxicity part II: the role of free radical damage and the use of antioxidants in the pathology and treatment of lead toxicity. Altern Med Rev 11:114–127 Payne J, Scholze M, Kortenkamp A (2001) Mixtures of four organochlorines enhance human breast cancer cell proliferation. Environ Health Perspect 109:391–397 Piazza V, Gambardella C, Canepa S, Costa E, Faimali M, Garaventa F (2016) Temperature and salinity effects on cadmium toxicity on lethal and sublethal responses of Amphibalanus amphitrite nauplii. Ecotox Environ Safe 123:8–17 Pimentel D, Cooperstein S, Randell H, Filiberto D, Sorrentino S, Kaye B, Nicklin C, Yagi J, Brian J, O’Hern J (2007) Ecology of increasing diseases: population growth and environmental degradation. Hum Ecol 35:653–668 Prato E, Scardicchio C, Biandolino F (2008) Effects of temperature on the acute toxicity of cadmium to Corophium insidiosum. Environ Monit Assess 136:161–166 Pretto A, Loro VL, Morsch VM, Moraes BS, Menezes C, Santi A, Toni C (2014) Alterations in carbohydrate and protein metabolism in silver catfish (Rhamdia quelen) exposed to cadmium. Ecotox Environ Safe 100:188–192 Prüss-Ustün A, Vickers C, Haefliger P, Bertollini R (2011) Knowns and unknowns on burden of disease due to chemicals: a systematic review. Environ Health 10:9 Pynnönen K (1995) Effect of pH, hardness and maternal pre-exposure on the toxicity of Cd, Cu and Zn to the glochidial larvae of a freshwater clam Anodonta cygnea. Water Res 29:247–254, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0043-1354(94)00126-R Qin L-T, Liu S-S, Zhang J, Xiao Q-F (2011) A novel model integrated concentration addition with independent action for the prediction of toxicity of multi-component mixture. Toxicology 280:164–172 Qu R-J, Wang X-H, Feng M-B, Li Y, Liu H-X, Wang L-S, Wang Z-Y (2013) The toxicity of cadmium to three aquatic organisms (Photobacterium phosphoreum, Daphnia magna and Carassius auratus) under different pH levels. Ecotox Environ Safe 95:83–90 Rahman MK, Choudhary MI, Arif M, Morshed MM (2014) Dopamine-β-hydroxylase activity and levels of its cofactors and other biochemical parameters in the serum of arsenicosis patients of Bangladesh. Int J Biom Sci 10:52–60 Rai NK, Ashok A, Rai A, Tripathi S, Nagar GK, Mitra K, Bandyopadhay S (2013) Exposure to As, Cd and Pb-mixture impairs myelin and axon development in rat brain, optic nerve and retina. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 273:424–258 Ramsey KA, Foong RE, Sly PD, Larcombe AN, Zosky GR (2013) Early life arsenic exposure and acute and long-term responses to influenza A infection in mice. Environ Health Perspect 121:1187–1193 Rashid K, Sinha K, Sil PC (2013) An update on oxidative stress-mediated organ pathophysiology. Food Chem Toxicol 62:584–600 Reichard JF, Puga A (2010) Effects of arsenic exposure on DNA methylation and epigenetic gene regulation. Epigenomics 2:87–104 Reichard JF, Schnekenburger M, Puga A (2007) Long term low-dose arsenic exposure induces loss of DNA methylation. Biochem Bioph Res Co 352:188–192 Rider CV, LeBlanc GA (2005) An integrated addition and interaction model for assessing toxicity of chemical mixtures. Toxicol Sci 87:520–528 Sabath E, Robles-Osorio ML (2012) Medio ambiente y riñón: nefrotoxicidad por metales pesados [Renal health and the environment: heavy metal nephrotoxicity]. Nefrologia 32:279–286 Sabolic I, Herak-Kramberger CM, Antolovic R, Breton S, Brown D (2006) Loss of basolateral invaginations in proximal tubules of cadmium-intoxicated rats is independent of microtubules and clathrin. Toxicology 218:149–163 Saeki K, Okazaki M, Matsumoto S (1993) The chemical phase changes in heavy metals with drying and oxidation of the lake sediments. Water Res 27:1243–1251 Sanz-Medel A (1998) Toxic trace metal speciation: importance and tools for environmental and biological analysis. Pure Appl Chem 70:2281–2285 Shargorodsky J, Curhan SG, Henderson E, Eavey R, Curhan GC (2011) Heavy metals exposure and hearing loss in US adolescents. Arch Otolaryngol 137:1183–1189 Shi H, Shi X, Liu KJ (2004) Oxidative mechanism of arsenic toxicity and carcinogenesis. Mol Cell Biochem 255:67–78 Sijm D, Rikken M, Rorije E, Traas T, McLachlan M, Peijnenburg W (2007) Transport, accumulation and transformation processes. In: Risk assessment of chemicals. Springer, pp. 73–158 Silva E, Rajapakse N, Kortenkamp A (2002) Something from “nothing”—eight weak estrogenic chemicals combined at concentrations below NOECs produce significant mixture effects. Environ Sci Technol 36:1751–1756 Singer MM, Tjeerdema RS (1993) Fate and effects of the surfactant sodium dodecyl sulfate. In: Reviews of environmental contamination and toxicology. Springer, pp. 95–149 Smith E, Gancarz D, Rofe A, Kempson IM, Weber J, Juhasz AL (2012) Antagonistic effects of cadmium on lead accumulation in pregnant and non-pregnant mice. J Hazard Mater 199:453–456 Soares FA, Farina M, Santos FW, Souza D, Rocha JBT, Nogueira CW (2003) Interaction between metals and chelating agents affects glutamate binding on brain synaptic membranes. Neurochem Res 28:1859–1865 Spector JT, Navas-Acien A, Fadrowski J, Guallar E, Jaar B, Weaver VM (2011) Associations of blood lead with estimated glomerular filtration rate using MDRD, CKD-EPI and serum cystatin C-based equations. Nephrol Dial Transpl 26(9):2786–92. doi:10.1093/ndt/gfq773 Spurgeon DJ, Jones OA, Dorne J-L, Svendsen C, Swain S, Stürzenbaum SR (2010) Systems toxicology approaches for understanding the joint effects of environmental chemical mixtures. Sci Total Environ 408:3725–3734 Stackelberg PE, Gibs J, Furlong ET, Meyer MT, Zaugg SD, Lippincott RL (2007) Efficiency of conventional drinking-water-treatment processes in removal of pharmaceuticals and other organic compounds. Sci Total Environ 377:255–272 Steinberg CE (2012) Arms race between plants and animals: biotransformation system. In: Stress ecology. Springer, pp. 61–106 Styblo M, Serves SV, Cullen WR, Thomas DJ (1997) Comparative inhibition of yeast glutathione reductase by arsenicals and arsenothiols. Chem Res Toxicol 10:27–33 Sugawara E, Nakamura K, Miyake T, Fukumura A, Seki Y (1991) Lipid peroxidation and concentration of glutathione in erythrocytes from workers exposed to lead. Br J Ind Med 48:239–242 Suter L, Babiss LE, Wheeldon EB (2004) Toxicogenomics in predictive toxicology in drug development. Chem Biol 11:161–171 Tchounwou PB, Yedjou CG, Patlolla AK, Sutton DJ (2012) Heavy metals toxicity and the environment. EXS 101:133–164. doi:10.1007/978-3-7643-8340-4_6 Tollett V, Benvenutti E, Deer L, Rice T (2009) Differential toxicity to Cd, Pb, and Cu in dragonfly larvae (Insecta: Odonata). Arch Environ Con Tox 56:77–84 Tsutsumi T, Ishihara A, Yamamoto A, Asaji H, Yamakawa S, Tokumura A (2014) The potential protective role of lysophospholipid mediators in nephrotoxicity induced by chronically exposed cadmium. Food Chem Toxicol 65:52–62 Tyler CR, Allan AM (2014) The effects of arsenic exposure on neurological and cognitive dysfunction in human and rodent studies: a review. Curr Environ Health Rep 1:132–147 Valentino-Álvarez J, Núñez-Nogueira G, Fernández-Bringas L (2013) Acute toxicity of arsenic under different temperatures and salinity conditions on the white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei. Biol Trace Elem Res 152:350–357. doi:10.1007/s12011-013-9635-6 Van Kerkhove E, Pennemans V, Swennen Q (2010) Cadmium and transport of ions and substances across cell membranes and epithelia. Biometals 23:823–855 Varotto L et al (2013) DNA damage and transcriptional changes in the gills of Mytilus galloprovincialis exposed to nanomolar doses of combined metal salts (Cd, Cu, Hg). PLoS One 8:e54602 Vellinger C, Parant M, Rousselle P, Usseglio-Polatera P (2012) Antagonistic toxicity of arsenate and cadmium in a freshwater amphipod (Gammarus pulex). Ecotoxicology 21:1817–1827 Vellinger C, Gismondi E, Felten V, Rousselle P, Mehennaoui K, Parant M, Usseglio-Polatera P (2013) Single and combined effects of cadmium and arsenate in Gammarus pulex (Crustacea, Amphipoda): understanding the links between physiological and behavioural responses. Aquat Toxicol 140:106–116 Waisberg M, Joseph P, Hale B, Beyersmann D (2003) Molecular and cellular mechanisms of cadmium carcinogenesis. Toxicology 192:95–117 Wang G, Fowler BA (2008) Roles of biomarkers in evaluating interactions among mixtures of lead, cadmium and arsenic. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 233:92–99 Wang Y, Fang J, Leonard SS, Krishna Rao KM (2004) Cadmium inhibits the electron transfer chain and induces reactive oxygen species. Free Radical Biol Med 36:1434–1443 Wang Z, Zhao Y, Smith E, Goodall GJ, Drew PA, Brabletz T, Yang C (2011) Reversal and prevention of arsenic-induced human bronchial epithelial cell malignant transformation by microRNA-200b. Toxicol Sci 121:110–122 Waters M (2003) Systems toxicology and the Chemical Effects in Biological Systems (CEBS) knowledge base. Environ Health Perspect 111:811–812 Wätjen W, Beyersmann D (2004) Cadmium-induced apoptosis in C6 glioma cells: influence of oxidative stress. Biometals 17:65–78 Watson WA et al (2005) 2004 annual report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers Toxic Exposure Surveillance System. Am J Emerg Med 23:589–666 Weldon MM et al (2000) Mercury poisoning associated with a Mexican beauty cream. Western J Med 173:15 Whittaker MH, Wang G, Chen X-Q, Lipsky M, Smith D, Gwiazda R, Fowler BA (2011) Exposure to Pb, Cd, and As mixtures potentiates the production of oxidative stress precursors: 30-day, 90-day, and 180-day drinking water studies in rats. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 254:154–166 WHO (1991) Environmental Health Criteria 118. Inorganic Mercury. International Program on Chemical Safety. World Health Organization, Geneva Wu B, Liu Z, Xu Y, Li D, Li M (2012) Combined toxicity of cadmium and lead on the earthworm Eisenia fetida (Annelida, Oligochaeta). Ecotox Environ Safe 81:122–126 Yang J-M, Arnush M, Chen Q-Y, Wu X-D, Pang B, Jiang X-Z (2003) Cadmium-induced damage to primary cultures of rat Leydig cells. Reprod Toxicol 17:553–560 Yuan G et al (2014) Toxicological assessment of combined lead and cadmium: acute and sub-chronic toxicity study in rats. Food Chem Toxicol 65:260–268 Zahir F, Rizwi SJ, Haq SK, Khan RH (2005) Low dose mercury toxicity and human health. Environ Toxicol Pharm 20:351–360 Zhang J et al (2013) Nephroprotective effect of calcium channel blockers against toxicity of lead exposure in mice. Toxicol Lett 218:273–280 Zubero MB, Aurrekoetxea JJ, Ibarluzea JM, Arenaza MJ, Rodríguez C, Sáenz JR (2010) Heavy metal levels (Pb, Cd, Cr and Hg) in the adult general population near an urban solid waste incinerator. Sci Total Environ 408:4468–4474