The podium illusion: a phenomenological study of the influence of social support on well-being and performance in elite para swimmers
Tóm tắt
The value of social support in enhancing performance is well established in non-impaired and sub-international level athletes with impairments. Despite this, no research to date has explored the experiences of social support in elite para-athletes. The aim of this study was to explore the experiences of social support in elite British para-swimmers and the influence on their wellbeing and performance. A hermeneutic phenomenological study involving semi-structured interviews was undertaken with 8 elite British para-swimmers (3 male, 5 female, mean age 24.9 years). Participants represented 5 para-swimming classes and all 10 of the International Paralympic Committee impairment categories. Data were analysed following a modified version of the Framework Method. Research quality and trustworthiness were ensured through employing techniques including data triangulation, member checking and reflexivity. Five themes and 11 sub-themes were generated. The five themes were: ‘the coach-athlete relationship’, ‘team bond’, ‘tangible aid’, ‘The Podium Illusion’ and ‘British para-swimming’. The overall findings and the magnitude of support mentioned in the fourth theme led to the development of a new model called ‘The Podium Illusion’ which reflects the magnitude of support that is available to elite para-swimmers to help maximise their performance and wellbeing. Social support is essential for athlete wellbeing and performance. Findings underpin a new model, ‘The Podium Illusion’.
Tài liệu tham khảo
Inside the games. The history of para-sport. No date. https://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1010777/the-history-of-parasport. Accessed 3 Jul 2020.
Swartz L, Hunt X, Bantjes J, Hainline B, Reardon CL. Mental health symptoms and disorders in Paralympic athletes: a narrative review. Br J Sports Med. 2019;53(12):737–40. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2019-100731.
Jones C, David HP. The conceptual boundaries of sport for the disabled: classification and athletic performance. J Philos Sport. 2005;32(2):133–46. https://doi.org/10.1080/00948705.2005.9714678.
Blauwet C, Willick SE. The Paralympic movement: using sports to promote health, disability rights, and social integration for athletes with disabilities. PM&R. 2012;4(11):851–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmrj.2012.08.015.
International Paralympic Committee. Summer Paralympic games overview. No date. https://www.paralympic.org/paralympic-games/summer-overview. Accessed 3 Jul 2020.
Paralympics GB. Para swimming. No date. https://paralympics.org.uk/sports/para-swimming. Accessed 3 Jul 2020.
Rio 2016. Swimming. No date. https://www.paralympic.org/rio-2016/results/swimming. Accessed 3 Jul 2020.
British Swimming. Paralympic swimming. No date. https://www.britishswimming.org/browse-sport/para-swimming/paralympic-swimming/. Accessed 3 Jul 2020.
Team USA. Athlete services. No date. https://www.teamusa.org/team-usa-athlete-services. Accessed 3 Aug 2020.
UK Sport. Current funding figures. No date https://www.uksport.gov.uk/our-work/investing-in-sport/current-funding-figures. Accessed 3 Jul 2020.
UK Sport. Historical funding figures. No date. https://www.uksport.gov.uk/our-work/investing-in-sport/historical-funding-figures. Accessed 3 Jul 2020.
Fagher K, Forsberg A, Jacobsson J, Timpka T, Dahlström Ö, Lexell J. Paralympic athletes’ perceptions of their experiences of sports-related injuries, risk factors and preventive possibilities. Eur J Sport Sci. 2016;16(8):1240–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2016.1192689.
Pack S, Kelly S, Arvinen-Barrow M. “I think I became a swimmer rather than just someone with a disability swimming up and down:” paralympic athletes perceptions of self and identity development. Disabil Rehabil. 2017;39(20):2063–70. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2016.1217074.
Bundon A, Ashfield A, Smith B, Goosey-Tolfrey VL. Struggling to stay and struggling to leave: the experiences of elite Para-athletes at the end of their sport careers. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2018;37:296–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.04.007.
De Cruz NP, Spray CM, Smith B. Implicit beliefs of disability and elite sport: the Para-athlete experience. Qual Res Sport Exerc Health. 2019;11(1):69–91. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2017.1384753.
Cutrona CE, Russell DW. Type of social support and specific stress: Toward a theory of optimal matching. In: Sarason BR, Sarason IG, Pierce GR, editors. Wiley series on personality processes. Social support: an interactional view: John Wiley and Sons; 1990. p. 319–66.
Martin JJ, Mushett CA. Social support mechanisms among athletes with disabilities. Adapt Phys Act Q. 1996;13(1):74–83. https://doi.org/10.1123/apaq.13.1.74.
Rosenfeld LB, Richman JM, Hardy CJ. Examining social support networks among athletes: description and relationship to stress. Sport Pyschol. 1989;3:23–33.
Gould D, Guinan D, Greenleaf C, Medbery R, Peterson K. Factors affecting Olympic performance: perceptions of athletes and coaches from more and less successful teams. Sport Psychol. 1999;13(4):371–94. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.13.4.371.
Barefield S, McCallister S. Social support in the athletic training room: athletes' expectations of staff and student athletic trainers. J Athl Train. 1997;32:333.
Kristiansen E, Roberts GC. Young elite athletes and social support: coping with competitive and organizational stress in “Olympic” competition. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2010;20(4):686–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2009.00950.x.
Yang J, Peek-Asa C, Lowe JB, Heiden E, Foster DT. Social support patterns of collegiate athletes before and after injury. J Athl Train. 2010;45(4):372–9. https://doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-45.4.372.
Gould D, Greenleaf C, Guinan D, Dieffenbach K, McCann S. Pursuing performance excellence: lessons learned from Olympic athletes and coaches. Journal of Excellence. 2001;4:21–43.
Greenleaf C, Gould D, Dieffenbach K. Factors influencing Olympic performance: interviews with Atlanta and Negano US Olympians. J Appl Sport Psychol. 2001;13(2):154–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/104132001753149874.
Burns L, Weissensteiner JR, Cohen M. Lifestyles and mindsets of Olympic, Paralympic and world champions: is an integrated approach the key to elite performance? Br J Sports Med. 2019;53(13):818–24. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2018-099217.
Aitchison B, Soundy A, Martin P, Rushton A, Heneghan NR. Lived experiences of social support in Paralympic swimmers: a protocol for a qualitative study. BMJ Open. 2020;10:1–6.
Finlay L. Multiple voices, multiple paths: choosing between qualitative traditions. Br J Occup Ther. 2000;63(12):580–2. https://doi.org/10.1177/030802260006301204.
Hammersley M. Ethnography and realism. The qualitative researcher’s companion. 2002;19:65–80.
Duncan EA, Nicol MM. Subtle realism and occupational therapy: an alternative approach to knowledge generation and evaluation. Br J Occup Ther. 2004;67(10):453–6. https://doi.org/10.1177/030802260406701006.
Van Manen M. Researching lived experience: human science for an action sensitive pedagogy. 2nd ed. Oxon: Routledge; 2016.
Kleiman S. Phenomenology: to wonder and search for meanings. Nurse researcher. 2004;11(4):7–19. https://doi.org/10.7748/nr2004.07.11.4.7.c6211.
Reeves S, Albert M, Kuper A, Hodges BD. Why use theories in qualitative research? BMJ. 2008;337:631–4.
Tong A, Sainsbury P, Craig J. Consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research (COREQ): a 32-item checklist for interviews and focus groups. Int Journal Qual Health Care. 2007;19(6):349–57. https://doi.org/10.1093/intqhc/mzm042.
Moser A, Korstjens I. Series: practical guidance to qualitative research. Part 3: sampling, data collection and analysis. Eur J Gen Pract. 2018;24(1):9–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/13814788.2017.1375091.
Giacomini MK, Cook DJ, Evidence-Based Medicine Working Group. Users' guides to the medical literature: XXIII. Qualitative research in health care a. are the results of the study valid? Jama. 2000;284(3):357–62. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.284.3.357.
Malterud K, Siersma VD, Guassora AD. Sample size in qualitative interview studies: guided by information power. Qual Health Res. 2016;26(13):1753–60. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732315617444.
British Swimming. World class pathway. No date. https://www.britishswimming.org/performance/para-swimming/world-class-pathway/. Accessed 3 Jul 2020.
Cutrona CE, Russell DW. Type of social support and specific stress: toward a theory of optimal matching. In: Sarason R, Pierce GR, editors. Social support: an international view. New York: Wiley and sons; 1990. p. 319–66.
Griffee DT. Research tips: interview data collection. J Dev Educ. 2005;28:36–7.
Knafl K, Deatrick J, Gallo A, Holcombe G, Bakitas M, Dixon J, et al. The analysis and interpretation of cognitive interviews for instrument development. Res Nurs Health. 2007;30(2):224–34. https://doi.org/10.1002/nur.20195.
Fossey E, Harvey C, McDermott F, Davidson L. Understanding and evaluating qualitative research. Aus N Z J Psychiatry. 2002;36(6):717–32. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-1614.2002.01100.x.
Emerson RM, Fretz RI, Shaw LL. Writing ethnographic fieldnotes. 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 2011. https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226206868.001.0001.
Laverty SM. Hermeneutic phenomenology and phenomenology: a comparison of historical and methodological considerations. Int J Qual Methods. 2003;2(3):21–35. https://doi.org/10.1177/160940690300200303.
Thomas DR. Feedback from research participants: are member checks useful in qualitative research? Qual Res Psychol. 2017;14(1):23–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/14780887.2016.1219435.
Ranney ML, Meisel ZF, Choo EK, Garro AC, Sasson C, Morrow GK. Interview-based qualitative research in emergency care part II: data collection, analysis and results reporting. Acad Emerg Med. 2015;22(9):1103–12. https://doi.org/10.1111/acem.12735.
Gale NK, Heath G, Cameron E, Rashid S, Redwood S. Using the framework method for the analysis of qualitative data in multi-disciplinary health research. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2013;13:1–8.
Jowett S, Cockerill IM. Olympic medallists’ perspective of the athlete–coach relationship. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2003;4(4):313–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1469-0292(02)00011-0.
Trzaskoma-Bicsérdy G, Bognár J, Révész L, Géczi G. The coach-athlete relationship in successful Hungarian individual sports. Int J Sports Sci Coach. 2007;2(4):485–95. https://doi.org/10.1260/174795407783359759.
Philippe RA, Seiler R. Closeness, co-orientation and complementarity in coach–athlete relationships: what male swimmers say about their male coaches. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2006;7(2):159–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2005.08.004.
Swimming World. Why mornings workouts are the secret pride of swimmers. 2020. https://www.swimmingworldmagazine.com/news/why-morning-workouts-arethe-secret-pride-of-swimmers/. Accessed 3 Jul 2020.
Garci TH, Mandich A. Going for gold: understanding occupational engagement in elite-level wheelchair basketball athletes. J Occup Sci. 2005;12(3):170–5. https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2005.9686560.
Stillson VG. Case study of participation and perceptions of wheelchair athletes in wheelchair sports. Rutgers The State University of New Jersey, Graduate School of Applied and Professional Psychology. 2006. https://search.proquest.com/docview/304940192?pq-origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true. Accessed 15 Jul 2020.
Silva C. The impact of sitting volleyball participation on the lives of players with impairments. 2013. https://repository.lboro.ac.uk/articles/The_impact_of_sitting_volleyball_participation_on_the_lives_of_players_with_impairments/9609656. Accessed 15 Jul 2020.
Haslett D, Fitzpatrick B, Breslin G. The psychological influences on participation in wheelchair rugby: a social relational model of disability. Acta Universitatis Carolinae: Kinanthropologica. 2017;53:60–78.
Powis BJ. An embodied approach to disability Sport: the lived experience of visually impaired cricket players. 2017. https://research.brighton.ac.uk/en/studentTheses/an-embodied-approach-to-disability-sport-the-lived-experience-of-. Accessed 15 Jul 2020.
Foster R, Fitzgerald H, Stride A. The socialization and participation of Deaflympians in sport. Sport Soc. 2018;22:1904–18.
Arnold R, Wagstaff CR, Steadman L, Pratt Y. The organisational stressors encountered by athletes with a disability. J Sports Sci. 2017;35(12):1187–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2016.1214285.
Tokyo 2020. Swimming. No date. https://tokyo2020.org/en/paralympics/sports/swimming/#:~:text=Paralympic%20swimmers%20at%20Tokyo%202020,process%20known%20as%20'classification'. Accessed 3 Jul 2020.
Grant ME, Steffen K, Glasgow P, Phillips N, Booth L, Galligan M. The role of sports physiotherapy at the London 2012 Olympic games. Br J Sports Med. 2014;48(1):63–70. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2013-093169.
Brittain I. Perspectives of elite athletes with disabilities: Problems and possibilities. 2002. https://bura.brunel.ac.uk/handle/2438/6632 Accessed 15 Jul 2020.
Huang CJ. Discourses of disability sport: experiences of elite male and female athletes in Britain and Taiwan. 2005. https://bura.brunel.ac.uk/handle/2438/5401. Accessed 15 Jul 2020.
British Swimming. National performance centre. No date. https://www.britishswimming.org/performance/para-swimming/national-performancecentre/. Accessed 3 Jul 2020.
British Swimming. Para-swimming leads the way with kistler. No date. https://www.britishswimming.org/performance/para-swimming/kistler-british-paraswimming/. Accessed 3 Jul 2020.
Kistler. Performance analysis system for swimming starts, turns and relay changeovers. 2019. https://www.kistler.com/files/document/003-134e.pdf?callee=frontend. Accessed 20 Jul 2020.
BBC News. Tokyo 2020: Olympic and Paralympic Games postponed because of coronavirus. 2020. https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/olympics/52020134#:~:text=The%20Tokyo%202020%20Olympic%20and,no%20later%20than%20summer%202021%22. Accessed 1 Aug 2020.
British Swimming. British swimming and mental health. 2018. https://www.britishswimming.org/news/general-swimming-news/british-swimming-and-mental-health/#:~:text=Staff%20from%20each%20discipline%20and,raising%20awareness%20of%20mental%20health. Accessed 21 Jul 2020.
Macdougall H, O’Halloran P, Shields N, Sherry E. Comparing the well-being of Para and Olympic sport athletes: a systematic review. Adapt Phys Act Q. 2015;32(3):256–76. https://doi.org/10.1123/APAQ.2014-0168.
Van Dornick K, Spencer NL. What’s in a Sport class? The classification experiences of Paraswimmers. Adapt Phys Act Q. 2019;1:1–9.
Bishop C, Cree J, Read P, Chavda S, Edwards M, Turner A. Strength and conditioning for sprint swimming. Strength Cond J. 2013;35(6):1–6. https://doi.org/10.1519/SSC.0000000000000019.
Bishop DC, Smith RJ, Smith MF, Rigby HE. Effect of plyometric training on swimming block start performance in adolescents. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 2009;23(7):2137–43. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181b866d0.
Fig G. Strength training for swimmers: training the core. Strength Cond J. 2005;27:40–2.
Batalha N, Raimundo A, Tomas-Carus P, Paulo J, Simão R, Silva AJ. Does a land-based compensatory strength-training programme influences the rotator cuff balance of young competitive swimmers? Eur J Sport Sci. 2015;15(8):764–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2015.1051132.
Amaro NM, Morouco PG, Marques MC, Batalha N, Neiva H, Marinho DA. A systematic review on dry-land strength and conditioning training on swimming performance. Science & Sports. 2019;34:1–4.
Howells K, Lucassen M. ‘Post-Olympic blues’–the diminution of celebrity in Olympic athletes. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2018;37:67–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.04.008.
Henriksen K, Schinke R, McCann S, Durand-Bush N, Moesch K, Parham WD, et al. Athlete mental health in the Olympic/Paralympic quadrennium: a multi-societal consensus statement. Int J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2020;18(3):391–408. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2020.1746379.
Mosewich AD, Crocker PR, Kowalski KC. Managing injury and other setbacks in sport: experiences of (and resources for) high-performance women athletes. Qual Res Sport Exerc Health. 2014;6(2):182–204. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2013.766810.
Sheard M, Golby J. Effect of a psychological skills training program on swimming performance and positive psychological development. Int J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2006;4(2):149–69. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2006.9671790.
English Institute of Sport. Physiology. No date. https://www.eis2win.co.uk/service/physiology/. Accessed 21 Jul 2020.
Martin MR, Zimmerman R, Ciotto C. Sport nutritionist: a new sport education role. Strategies. 2015;28(3):40–5. https://doi.org/10.1080/08924562.2015.1025171.
Sport medicine and science council of Saskatchewan. Guidelines for skinfold testing in young athletes. No date. http://www.smscs.dreamhosters.com/wpcontent/uploads/2016/01/skinfoldguidelines.pdf. Accessed 21 Jul 2020.
Burkett B, Mellifont R. Sport science and coaching in Paralympic swimming. Int J Sports Sci Coach. 2008;3(1):105–12. https://doi.org/10.1260/174795408784089324.
Puce L, Marinelli L, Pierantozzi E, Mori L, Pallecchi I, Bonifazi M, et al. Training methods and analysis of races of a top level Paralympic swimming athlete. J Exerc Rehabil. 2018;14(4):612–20. https://doi.org/10.12965/jer.1836254.127.
Bianco T. Social support and recovery from sport injury: elite skiers share their experiences. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2001;72(4):376–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2001.10608974.
Brown CJ, Webb TL, Robinson MA, Cotgreave R. Athletes' experiences of social support during their transition out of elite sport: an interpretive phenomenological analysis. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2018;36:71–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.01.003.
Ashfield A, Harrison J, Giles S. Performance lifestyle in Olympic and Paralympic sport: where positive psychology informs practice. In Positive Psychology in Sport and Physical Activity. 2017:204–18. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315304397-17.
English Institute of Sport. Performance lifestyle. No date. https://www.eis2win.co.uk/service/performance-lifestyle/. Accessed 21 Jul 2020.
Mays N, Pope C. Assessing quality in qualitative research. BMJ. 2000;320(7226):50–2. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.320.7226.50.
Morse JM. Critical analysis of strategies for determining rigor in qualitative inquiry. Qual Health Res. 2015;25(9):1212–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732315588501.
Carter N, Bryant-Lukosius D, DiCenso A, Blythe J, Neville AJ. The use of triangulation in qualitative research. Methods and meanings. 2014;41(5):545–7.
Shenton AK. Strategies for ensuring trustworthiness in qualitative research projects. Educ Inf. 2004;22(2):63–75. https://doi.org/10.3233/EFI-2004-22201.