Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococci*

Chest - Tập 123 - Trang 504S-518S - 2003
Sylvain DeLisle1, Trish M. Perl2
1US Veterans Administration Medical Center, Departments of Internal Medicine and Physiology, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD
2Departments of Hospital Epidemiology and Medicine, Johns Hopkins Medicine and the Bloomberg School of Public Health and Hygiene, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD

Tài liệu tham khảo

Donowitz, 1982, High risk of hospital-acquired infection in the ICU patient, Crit Care Med, 10, 355, 10.1097/00003246-198206000-00001 Jarvis, 1991, Nosocomial infection rates in adult and pediatric intensive care units in the United States: National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System, Am J Med, 91, 185S, 10.1016/0002-9343(91)90367-7 Beezhold, 1997, Skin colonization with vancomycin-resistant enterococci among hospitalized patients with bacteremia, Clin Infect Dis, 24, 704, 10.1093/clind/24.4.704 Richards, 1999, Nosocomial infections in medical intensive care units in the United States. National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System, Crit Care Med, 27, 887, 10.1097/00003246-199905000-00020 Office of Technology Assessment, 1995 Leclercq, 1988, Plasmid-mediated resistance to vancomycin and teicoplanin inEnterococcus faecium, N Engl J Med, 319, 157, 10.1056/NEJM198807213190307 Uttley, 1988, Vancomycin-resistant enterococci, Lancet, 1, 57, 10.1016/S0140-6736(88)91037-9 Sahm, 1989, In vitrosusceptibility studies of vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus faecalis, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 33, 1588, 10.1128/AAC.33.9.1588 Boyce, 1997, Vancomycin-resistant enterococcus, Infect Dis Clin North Am, 11, 367, 10.1016/S0891-5520(05)70361-5 Dalla Costa, 1998, Vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus faecium: first case in Brazil, Braz J Infect Dis, 2, 160 Zanella, 1999, First confirmed case of a vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus faeciumwithvanAphenotype from Brazil: isolation from a meningitis case in Sao Paulo, Microb Drug Resist, 5, 159, 10.1089/mdr.1999.5.159 McCarthy, 2000, Control of an outbreak of vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus faeciumin an oncology ward in South Africa: effective use of limited resources, J Hosp Infect, 44, 294, 10.1053/jhin.1999.0696 1993, Nosocomial enterococci resistant to vancomycin: United States, 1989–1993, MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 42, 597 Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC), 1995, Recommendations for preventing the spread of vancomycin-resistance, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 16, 105, 10.2307/30140952 Christenson, 1998, Detection of vancomycin-resistant enterococci colonization in a children's hospital, Am J Infect Control, 26, 569, 10.1053/ic.1998.v26.a93115 Morris, 1995, Enterococci resistant to multiple antimicrobial agents including vancomycin: establishment of endemicity in a university medical center, Ann Intern Med, 123, 250, 10.7326/0003-4819-123-4-199508150-00002 Quale, 1996, Experience with a hospital-wide outbreak of vancomycin-resistant enterococci, Am J Infect Control, 24, 372, 10.1016/S0196-6553(96)90025-5 2001, National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) System report: data summary from January 1992-June 2001, issued August 2001, Am J Infect Control, 29, 404, 10.1067/mic.2001.119952 National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance(NNIS)report: data summary from October 1986-April 1997, issued May 1997, 1997, A report from the NNIS System, Am J Infect Control, 25, 477 Edmond, 1995, Vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus faeciumbacteremia: risk factors for infection, Clin Infect Dis, 20, 1126, 10.1093/clinids/20.5.1126 Montecalvo, 1997, A semiquantitative analysis of the fecal flora of patients with vancomycin-resistant enterococci: colonized patients pose an infection control risk, Clin Infect Dis, 25, 929, 10.1086/597643 Edmond, 1996, Vancomycin-resistant enterococcal bacteremia: natural history and attributable mortality, Clin Infect Dis, 23, 1234, 10.1093/clinids/23.6.1234 Linden, 1996, Differences in outcomes for patients with bacteremia due to vancomycine-resistantEnterococcus faeciumor vancomycin-susceptibleE faecium, Clin Infect Dis, 22, 663, 10.1093/clinids/22.4.663 Landry, 1989, Hospital stay and mortality attributed to nosocomial enterococcal bacteremia: a controlled study, Am J Infect Control, 17, 323, 10.1016/0196-6553(89)90001-1 Wells, 1995, Stool carriage, clinical isolation, and mortality during an outbreak of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in hospitalized medical and/or surgical patients, Clin Infect Dis, 21, 45, 10.1093/clinids/21.1.45 Mainous, 1997, Enterococcal bacteremia in the surgical intensive care unit: does vancomycin resistance affect mortality?, Arch Surg, 132, 76, 10.1001/archsurg.1997.01430250078017 Montecalvo, 1997, The cost-benefit of enhanced infection control strategies (EICS) to prevent transmission of vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) [abstract], ICAAC, 37 Moellering, 1992, Emergence of Enterococcus as a significant pathogen, Clin Infect Dis, 14, 1173, 10.1093/clinids/14.6.1173 Murray, 1990, The life and times of the Enterococcus, Clin Microbiol Rev, 3, 46, 10.1128/CMR.3.1.46 Eliopoulos, 1993, Aminoglycoside resistant enterococcal endocarditis, Infect Dis Clin North Am, 7, 117, 10.1016/S0891-5520(20)30509-2 Hodges, 1992, Antimicrobial susceptibility changes inEnterococcus faecalisfollowing various penicillin exposure regimens, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 36, 121, 10.1128/AAC.36.1.121 Fontana, 1996, Intrinsic penicillin resistance in enterococci, Microb Drug Resist, 2, 209, 10.1089/mdr.1996.2.209 Bonafede, 1997, Emerging antibiotic resistance, J Lab Clin Med, 130, 558, 10.1016/S0022-2143(97)90105-0 Rybkine, 1998, Penicillin-binding protein 5 sequence alterations in clinical isolates ofEnterococcus faeciumwith different levels of β-lactam resistance, J Infect Dis, 178, 159, 10.1086/515605 Grayson, 1990, Failure of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole therapy in experimental enterococcal endocarditis, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 34, 1792, 10.1128/AAC.34.9.1792 Moreno, 1995, Clinical and molecular epidemiology of vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus faeciumduring its emergence in a city in southern Texas, Clin Infect Dis, 21, 1234, 10.1093/clinids/21.5.1234 Wilson, 1995, Antibiotic treatment of adults with infective endocarditis due to streptococci, enterococci, staphylococci, and HACEK microorganisms. American Heart Association, JAMA, 274, 1706, 10.1001/jama.1995.03530210060032 McGowan, 1983, Antimicrobial resistance in hospital organisms and its relation to antibiotic use, Rev Infect Dis, 5, 1033, 10.1093/clinids/5.6.1033 Olson, 1984, Epidemiology of endemicPseudomonas aeruginosa: why infection control efforts have failed, J Infect Dis, 150, 808, 10.1093/infdis/150.6.808 Shlaes, 1997, Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America and Infectious Diseases Society of America Joint Committee on the Prevention of Antimicrobial Resistance: guidelines for the prevention of antimicrobial resistance in hospitals, Clin Infect Dis, 25, 584, 10.1086/513766 Schentag, 1998, Genesis of methicillin-resistantStaphylococcus aureus(MRSA), how treatment of MRSA infections has selected for vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus faecium, and the importance of antibiotic management and infection control, Clin Infect Dis, 26, 1204, 10.1086/520287 Thomas, 1998, Pharmacodynamic evaluation of factors associated with the development of bacterial resistance in acutely ill patients during therapy, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 42, 521, 10.1128/AAC.42.3.521 Fridkin, 1999, Surveillance of antimicrobial use and antimicrobial resistance in United States hospitals: project ICARE phase 2; Project Intensive Care Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemiology (ICARE) hospitals, Clin Infect Dis, 96, 245, 10.1086/520193 Austin, 1999, The relationship between the volume of antimicrobial consumption in human communities and the frequency of resistance, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 96, 1152, 10.1073/pnas.96.3.1152 Cetinkaya, 2000, Vancomycin-resistant enterococci, Clin Microbiol Rev, 13, 686, 10.1128/CMR.13.4.686-707.2000 Tenover, 1996, Reasons for the emergence of antibiotic resistance, Am J Med Sci, 311, 9, 10.1016/S0002-9629(15)41625-8 Hawkey, 1998, The origins and molecular basis of antibiotic resistance, BMJ, 317, 657, 10.1136/bmj.317.7159.657 Edlund, 1997, Effect of vancomycin on intestinal flora of patients who previously received antimicrobial therapy, Clin Infect Dis, 25, 729, 10.1086/513755 Van der Auwera, 1996, Influence of oral glycopeptides on the fecal flora of human volunteers: selection of highly glycopeptide-resistant enterococci, J Infect Dis, 173, 1129, 10.1093/infdis/173.5.1129 Rubin, 1992, Vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus faeciumin hospitalized children, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 13, 700, 10.2307/30146486 Karanfil, 1992, A cluster of vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus faeciumin an intensive care unit, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 13, 195, 10.2307/30147097 Handwerger, 1993, Nosocomial outbreak due toEnterococcus faeciumhighly resistant to vancomycin, penicillin, and gentamycin, Clin Infect Dis, 16, 750, 10.1093/clind/16.6.750 Boyle, 1993, Epidemiologic analysis and genotypic characterization of a nosocomial outbreak of vancomycin-resistant enterococci, J Clin Microbiol, 31, 1280, 10.1128/JCM.31.5.1280-1285.1993 Tornieporth, 1996, Risk factors associated with vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus faeciuminfection or colonization in 145 matched case patients and control patients, Clin Infect Dis, 23, 767, 10.1093/clinids/23.4.767 Rao, 1997, Vancomycin-resistant gram-positive cocci: risk factors for faecal carriage, J Hosp Infect, 35, 63, 10.1016/S0195-6701(97)90169-9 Montecalvo, 1994, Outbreak of vancomycin-, ampicillin-, and aminoglycoside-resistantEnterococcus faeciumbacteremia in an adult oncology unit, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 38, 1363, 10.1128/AAC.38.6.1363 Weinstein, 1996, Resistant enterococci: a prospective study of prevalence, incidence, and factors associated with colonization in a university hospital, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 17, 36, 10.2307/30142363 Pegues, 1997, Emergence and dissemination of a highly vancomycin-resistantvanAstrain ofEnterococcus faeciumat a large teaching hospital, J Clin Microbiol, 35, 1565, 10.1128/JCM.35.6.1565-1570.1997 Bonten, 1998, The role of “colonization pressure” in the spread of vancomycin-resistant enterococci: an important infection control variable, Arch Intern Med, 158, 1127, 10.1001/archinte.158.10.1127 Donskey, 2000, Effect of antibiotic therapy on the density of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in the stool of colonized patients, N Engl J Med, 343, 1925, 10.1056/NEJM200012283432604 Uttley, 1989, High-level vancomycin-resistant enterococci causing hospital infections, Epidemiol Infect, 103, 173, 10.1017/S0950268800030478 Leclercq, 1989, Transferable vancomycin and teicoplanin resistance inEnterococcus faecium, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 33, 10, 10.1128/AAC.33.1.10 Noble, 1992, Co-transfer of vancomycin and other resistance genes fromEnterococcus faecalis NCTC12201toStaphylococcus aureus, FEMS Microbiol Lett, 72, 195, 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1992.tb05089.x Vancomycin-resistantStaphylococcus aureus: Pennsylvania, 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2002; 51:902 2002, Staphylococcus aureus resistant to vancomycin: United States, 2002, MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 51, 565 Murray, 1992, β-Lactamase-producing enterococci, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 36, 2355, 10.1128/AAC.36.11.2355 Reynolds, 1989, Structure, biochemistry, and mechanism of action of glycopeptide antibiotics, Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis, 8, 943, 10.1007/BF01967563 Rice, 1996, Ceftazidime-resistantKlebsiella pneumoniaeisolates recovered at the Cleveland Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Clin Infect Dis, 23, 118, 10.1093/clinids/23.1.118 Dutka-Malen, 1994, Emergence of high-level resistance to glycopeptide inEnterococcus gallinarumandEnterococcus casseliflavus, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 38, 1675, 10.1128/AAC.38.7.1675 Fines, 1999, VanE, a new type of acquired glycopeptide resistance inEnterococcus faecalisBM4405, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 43, 2161, 10.1128/AAC.43.9.2161 Murray, 2000, Vancomycin-resistant enterococcal infections, N Engl J Med, 342, 710, 10.1056/NEJM200003093421007 Edmond, 1997, Multidrug-resistant enterococci and the threat of vancomycin-resistantStaphylococcus aureus, 339 Arthur, 1993, Genetics and mechanisms of glycopeptide resistance in enterococci, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 37, 1563, 10.1128/AAC.37.8.1563 Rosato, 1995, Inducible and constitutive expression of resistance to glycopeptides and vancomycin dependence in glycopeptide-resistantEnterococcus avium, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 39, 830, 10.1128/AAC.39.4.830 Torres, 1994, vanA-mediated vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus spp. in sewage, J Antimicrob Chemother, 33, 553, 10.1093/jac/33.3.553 Cercenado, 1995, Characterization of vancomycin resistance inEnterococcus durans, J Antimicrob Chemother, 36, 821, 10.1093/jac/36.5.821 Handwerger, 1995, Identification of chromosomal mobile element conferring high-level vancomycin resistance inEnterococcus faecium, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 39, 2446, 10.1128/AAC.39.11.2446 Leclercq, 1997, Resistance to glycopeptides in enterococci, Clin Infect Dis, 24, 545, 10.1093/clind/24.4.545 Handwerger, 1990, Induction of vancomycin resistance inEnterococcus faeciumby inhibition of transglycosylation, FEMS Microbiol Lett, 58, 167 Handwerger, 1994, Alterations in peptidoglycan precursors and vancomycin susceptibility in Tn917 insertion mutants ofEnterococcus faecalis221, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 38, 473, 10.1128/AAC.38.3.473 Quintiliani, 1994, Conjugal transfer of the vancomycin resistance determinantvanBbetween enterococci involves the movement of large genetic elements from chromosome to chromosome, FEMS Microbiol Lett, 119, 359, 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1994.tb06913.x Green, 1995, Bacteremia due to vancomycin-dependentEnterococcus faecium, Clin Infect Dis, 20, 712, 10.1093/clinids/20.3.712 Dever, 1995, Vancomycin-dependentEnterococcus faeciumisolated from stool following oral vancomycin therapy, J Clin Microbiol, 33, 2770, 10.1128/JCM.33.10.2770-2773.1995 Kirkpatrick, 1999, An outbreak of vancomycin-dependentEnterococcus faeciumin a bone marrow transplant unit, Clin Infect Dis, 29, 1268, 10.1086/313456 Weinstein, 1996, Comparison of rectal and perirectal swabs for detection of colonization with vancomycin-resistant enterococci, J Clin Microbiol, 34, 210, 10.1128/JCM.34.1.210-212.1996 Boyce, 1995, Vancomycin-resistant enterococci: pervasive and persistent pathogens, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 16, 676, 10.2307/30141909 Montecalvo, 1995, Natural history of colonization with vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus faecium, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 16, 680, 10.2307/30141910 Livornese, 1992, Hospital-acquired infection with vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus faeciumtransmitted by electronic thermometers, Ann Intern Med, 117, 112, 10.7326/0003-4819-117-2-112 Boyce, 1994, Outbreak of multidrug-resistantEnterococcus faeciumwith transferablevanBclass vancomycin resistance, J Clin Microbiol, 32, 1148, 10.1128/JCM.32.5.1148-1153.1994 Lai, 1997, The epidemiology of fecal carriage of vancomycin-resistant enterococci, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 18, 762, 10.2307/30141319 Bonten, 1998, Stability of vancomycin-resistant enterococcal genotypes isolated from long-term-colonized patients, J Infect Dis, 177, 378, 10.1086/514196 Bonten, 1996, Epidemiology of colonization of patients and environment with vancomycin-resistant enterococci, Lancet, 348, 1615, 10.1016/S0140-6736(96)02331-8 Holmes, 1974, Classic pages in obstetrics and gynecology. Oliver Wendell Holmes, the contagiousness of puerperal fever. New Engl Quar J Med and Surg, Vol 1; 503–530, 1842–1843, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 119, 852 Semmelweis, 1995, The etiology, concept and prevention of childbed fever 1861, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 172, 236, 10.1016/0002-9378(95)90126-4 Bonilla, 1997, Colonization with vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus faecium: comparison of a long-term-care unit with an acute-care hospital, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 18, 333, 10.2307/30141227 Wade, 1991, Hygienic hands disinfection for the removal of epidemic vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus faeciumand gentamicin-resistantEnterobacter cloacae, J Hosp Infect, 18, 211, 10.1016/0195-6701(91)90145-X Byers, 2001, A hospital epidemic of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus: risk factors and control, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 22, 140, 10.1086/501880 Roghmann, 1997, Clostridium difficileinfection is a risk factor for bacteremia due to vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) in VRE-colonized patients with acute leukemia, Clin Infect Dis, 25, 1056, 10.1086/516112 Papanicolaou, 1996, Nosocomial infections with vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus faeciumin liver transplant recipients: risk factors for acquisition and mortality, Clin Infect Dis, 23, 760, 10.1093/clinids/23.4.760 Bhavnani, 2000, A nationwide, multicenter, case-control study comparing risk factors, treatment, and outcome for vancomycin-resistant and -susceptible enterococcal bacteremia, Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis, 36, 145, 10.1016/S0732-8893(99)00136-4 D'Agata, 2001, Vancomycin-resistant enterococci among chronic hemodialysis patients: a prospective study of acquisition, Clin Infect Dis, 32, 23, 10.1086/317549 Atta, 2001, Outpatient vancomycin use and vancomycin-resistant enterococcal colonization in maintenance dialysis patients, Kidney Int, 59, 718, 10.1046/j.1523-1755.2001.059002718.x Gordts, 1995, Vancomycin-resistant enterococci colonizing the intestinal tracts of hospitalized patients, J Clin Microbiol, 33, 2842, 10.1128/JCM.33.11.2842-2846.1995 Archibald, 1997, Antimicrobial resistance in isolates from inpatients and outpatients in the United States: increasing importance of the intensive care unit, Clin Infect Dis, 24, 211, 10.1093/clinids/24.2.211 Weber, 1997, Role of environmental contamination in the transmission of vancomycin-resistant enterococci, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 18, 306, 10.2307/30141222 Neely, 2000, Survival of enterococci and staphylococci on hospital fabrics and plastic, J Clin Microbiol, 38, 724, 10.1128/JCM.38.2.724-726.2000 Noskin, 2000, Persistent contamination of fabric-covered furniture by vancomycin-resistant enterococci: implications for upholstery selection in hospitals, Am J Infect Control, 28, 311, 10.1067/mic.2000.108129 Noskin, 1995, Recovery of vancomycin-resistant enterococci on fingertips and environmental surfaces, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 16, 577, 10.2307/30141097 Porwancher, 1997, Epidemiological study of hospital-acquired infection with vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus faecium: possible transmission by an electronic ear-probe thermometer, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 18, 771, 10.2307/30141323 Falk, 2000, Outbreak of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in a burn unit, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 21, 575, 10.1086/501806 Singh, 2002, Bacterial contamination of hospital pagers, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 23, 274, 10.1086/502048 Devine, 2001, Is methicillin-resistantStaphylococcus aureus(MRSA) contamination of ward-based computer terminals a surrogate marker for nosocomial MRSA transmission and handwashing compliance?, J Hosp Infect, 48, 72, 10.1053/jhin.2001.0955 van den Bogaard, 1997, Vancomycin-resistant enterococci in turkeys and farmers, N Engl J Med, 337, 1558, 10.1056/NEJM199711203372117 McDonald, 1997, Vancomycin-resistant enterococci outside the health-care setting: prevalence, sources, and public health implications, Emerg Infect Dis, 3, 311, 10.3201/eid0303.970307 Murray, 1995, What can we do about vancomycin-resistant enterococci?, Clin Infect Dis, 20, 1134, 10.1093/clinids/20.5.1134 Thal, 1995, Characterization of antimicrobial resistance in enterococci of animal origin, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 39, 2112, 10.1128/AAC.39.9.2112 Jensen, 1998, Molecular analysis of Tn1546 inEnterococcus faeciumisolated from animals and humans, J Clin Microbiol, 36, 437, 10.1128/JCM.36.2.437-442.1998 Woodford, 1998, Diversity of VanA glycopeptide resistance elements in enterococci from humans and nonhuman sources, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 42, 502, 10.1128/AAC.42.3.502 Aarestrup, 1996, Glycopeptide susceptibility among DanishEnterococcus faeciumandEnterococcus faecalisisolates of animal and human origin and PCR identification of genes within the VanA cluster, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 40, 1938, 10.1128/AAC.40.8.1938 Borgen, 2000, Continuing high prevalence of VanA-type vancomycin-resistant enterococci on Norwegian poultry farms three years after avoparcin was banned, J Appl Microbiol, 89, 478, 10.1046/j.1365-2672.2000.01137.x Schwalbe, 1999, Isolation of vancomycin-resistant enterococci from animal feed in USA, Lancet, 353, 722, 10.1016/S0140-6736(98)05441-5 Ostrowsky, 2001, Control of vancomycin-resistant enterococcus in health care facilities in a region, N Engl J Med, 344, 1427, 10.1056/NEJM200105103441903 Kirst, 1998, Historical yearly usage of vancomycin, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 42, 1303, 10.1128/AAC.42.5.1303 Ena, 1993, The epidemiology of intravenous vancomycin usage in a university hospital: a 10-year study, JAMA, 269, 598, 10.1001/jama.1993.03500050076029 Anglim, 1997, Effect of a vancomycin restriction policy on ordering practices during an outbreak of vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus faecium, Arch Intern Med, 157, 1132, 10.1001/archinte.1997.00440310098010 Quale, 1996, Manipulation of a hospital antimicrobial formulary to control an outbreak of vancomycin-resistant enterococci, Clin Infect Dis, 23, 1020, 10.1093/clinids/23.5.1020 Bradley, 1999, The control of hyperendemic glycopeptide-resistant Enterococcus spp. on a haematology unit by changing antibiotic usage, J Antimicrob Chemother, 43, 261, 10.1093/jac/43.2.261 Smith, 1999, Decreased antimicrobial resistance after changes in antibiotic use, Pharmacotherapy, 19, 129S, 10.1592/phco.19.12.129S.31702 May, 2000, Reduction of vancomycin-resistant enterococcal infections by limitation of broad-spectrum cephalosporin use in a trauma and burn intensive care unit, Shock, 14, 259, 10.1097/00024382-200014030-00003 Bradley, 2000, Control of glycopeptide-resistant enterococci in an oncology unit, Pharmacotherapy, 20, 203S, 10.1592/phco.20.14.203S.35047 Monnet, 1998, Antimicrobial use and resistance in eight US hospitals: complexities of analysis and modeling; Intensive Care Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemiology Project and National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System Hospitals, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 19, 388, 10.2307/30142426 Chetchotisakd, 1994, Assessment of bacterial cross-transmission as a cause of infections in patients in intensive care units, Clin Infect Dis, 18, 929, 10.1093/clinids/18.6.929 Quale, 1996, Experience with a hospital-wide outbreak of vancomycin-resistant enterococci, Am J Infect Control, 24, 372, 10.1016/S0196-6553(96)90025-5 Austin, 1999, Vancomycin-resistant enterococci in intensive-care hospital settings: transmission dynamics, persistence, and the impact of infection control programs, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 96, 6908, 10.1073/pnas.96.12.6908 Gerding, 2000, Good antimicrobial stewardship in the hospital: fitting, but flagrantly flagging, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 21, 253, 10.1086/501753 DeLisle, 2001, Antimicrobial management measures to limit resistance: a process-based conceptual framework, Crit Care Med, 29, N121, 10.1097/00003246-200104001-00012 Marr, 1988, Guidelines for improving the use of antimicrobial agents in hospitals: a statement by the Infectious Diseases Society of America, J Infect Dis, 157, 869, 10.1093/infdis/157.5.869 Gould, 2001, Minimum antibiotic stewardship measures, Clin Microbiol Infect, 7, 22, 10.1046/j.1469-0691.2001.00082.x Puzniak, 2001, Acquisition of vancomycin-resistant enterococci during scheduled antimicrobial rotation in an intensive care unit, Clin Infect Dis, 33, 151, 10.1086/321807 Lisgaris, 2000 Murray, 1997, Vancomycin-resistant enterococci, Am J Med, 102, 284, 10.1016/S0002-9343(99)80270-8 Michel, 1997, Methicillin-resistantStaphylococcus aureusand vancomycin-resistant enterococci: therapeutic realities and possibilities, Lancet, 349, 1901, 10.1016/S0140-6736(96)11192-2 Hayden, 1993, In vivodevelopment of teicoplanin resistance in a VanBEnterococcus faeciumisolate, J Infect Dis, 167, 1224, 10.1093/infdis/167.5.1224 Losonsky, 1994, Successful treatment of meningitis due to multiply resistantEnterococcus faeciumwith a combination of intrathecal teicoplanin and intravenous antimicrobial agents, Clin Infect Dis, 19, 163, 10.1093/clinids/19.1.163 Aslangul, 1997, Selection of glycopeptide-resistant mutants of VanB-typeEnterococcus faecalisBM4281in vitroand in experimental endocarditis, J Infect Dis, 175, 598, 10.1093/infdis/175.3.598 Caron, 1997, Influence of erythromycin resistance, inoculum growth phase, and incubation time on assessment of the bactericidal activity of RP 59500 (quinupristin-dalfopristin) against vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus faecium, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 41, 2749, 10.1128/AAC.41.12.2749 Aeschlimann, 1998, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 42, 2710, 10.1128/AAC.42.10.2710 Lynn, 1994, Treatment of CAPD-peritonitis due to glycopeptide-resistantEnterococcus faeciumwith quinupristin/dalfopristin, Lancet, 344, 1025, 10.1016/S0140-6736(94)91687-X Nachman, 1995, Vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus faeciumshunt infection in an infant: an antibiotic cure, Microb Drug Resist, 1, 95, 10.1089/mdr.1995.1.95 Linden, 1997, Effect of quinupristin/dalfopristin on the outcome of vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus faeciumbacteraemia: comparison with a control cohort, J Antimicrob Chemother, 39, 145, 10.1093/jac/39.suppl_1.145 Furlong, 1997, Therapy with RP 59500 (quinupristin/dalfopristin) for prosthetic valve endocarditis due to enterococci with VanA/VanB resistance patterns, Clin Infect Dis, 25, 163, 10.1086/516895 Tush, 1998, Intraventricular quinupristin/dalfopristin for the treatment of vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus faeciumshunt infection, Clin Infect Dis, 26, 1460, 10.1086/517663 Matsumura, 1998, Treatment of endocarditis due to vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus faeciumwith quinupristin/dalfopristin, doxycycline, and rifampin: a synergistic drug combination, Clin Infect Dis, 27, 1554, 10.1086/517755 Moellering, 1999, The efficacy and safety of quinupristin/dalfopristin for the treatment of infections caused by vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus faecium: Synercid Emergency-Use Study Group, J Antimicrob Chemother, 44, 251, 10.1093/jac/44.2.251 Linden, 2001, Treatment of vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus faeciuminfections with quinupristin/dalfopristin, Clin Infect Dis, 33, 1816, 10.1086/323899 Timmers, 2002, Outbreak of vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus faeciumin a haematology unit: risk factor assessment and successful control of the epidemic, Br J Haematol, 116, 826, 10.1046/j.0007-1048.2002.03339.x Fantin, 1997, Influence of inducible cross-resistance to macrolides, lincosamides, and streptogramin B-type antibiotics inEnterococcus faeciumon activity of quinupristin-dalfopristinin vitroand in rabbits with experimental endocarditis, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 41, 931, 10.1128/AAC.41.5.931 Matsumura, 1999, Synergy testing of vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus faeciumagainst quinupristin-dalfopristin in combination with other antimicrobial agents, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 43, 2776, 10.1128/AAC.43.11.2776 Rende-Fournier, 1993, Identification of thesatAgene encoding a streptogramin A acetyltransferase inEnterococcus faeciumBM4145, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 37, 2119, 10.1128/AAC.37.10.2119 Gonzales, 2001, Infections due to vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus faeciumresistant to linezolid, Lancet, 357, 1179, 10.1016/S0140-6736(00)04376-2 Wong, 2001, Effective suppression of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus species in asymptomatic gastrointestinal carriers by a novel glycolipodepsipeptide, ramoplanin, Clin Infect Dis, 33, 1476, 10.1086/322687 Srinivasan, 2002, A prospective study to determine whether cover gowns in addition to gloves decrease nosocomial transmission of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in an intensive care unit, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 23, 424, 10.1086/502079 Jochimsen, 1999, Control of vancomycin-resistant enterococci at a community hospital: efficacy of patient and staff cohorting, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 20, 106, 10.1086/501598 Gillis, 1997, 37 Muto, 2002, Cost-effectiveness of perirectal surveillance cultures for controlling vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 23, 429, 10.1086/502080 Lynch, 1999, Characterization of the human cysteinyl leukotriene CysLT1 receptor, Nature, 399, 789, 10.1038/21658 Reisner, 2000, Comparison of three methods to recover vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) from perianal and environmental samples collected during a hospital outbreak of VRE, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 21, 775, 10.1086/501734 Hendrix, 2001, Surveillance strategies and impact of vancomycin-resistant enterococcal colonization and infection in critically ill patients, Ann Surg, 233, 259, 10.1097/00000658-200102000-00016 Jochimsen, 1997, Evaluation and control of vancomycin-resistant enterococci at an Indianapolis hospital [abstract], Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 18, 28 Boyce, 1995, Controlling vancomycin-resistant enterococci, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 16, 634, 10.2307/30141115 Slaughter, 1996, A comparison of the effect of universal use of gloves and gowns with that of gloves use alone on acquisition of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in a medical intensive care unit, Ann Intern Med, 125, 448, 10.7326/0003-4819-125-6-199609150-00004 Montecalvo, 1999, Infection-control measures reduce transmission of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in an endemic setting, Ann Intern Med, 131, 269, 10.7326/0003-4819-131-4-199908170-00006 Pittet, 2000, Effectiveness of a hospital-wide programme to improve compliance with hand hygiene. Infection Control Programme, Lancet, 356, 1307, 10.1016/S0140-6736(00)02814-2 Pittet, 2001, Improving adherence to hand hygiene practice: a multidisciplinary approach, Emerg Infect Dis, 7, 234, 10.3201/eid0702.010217 Widmer, 2000, Replace hand washing with use of a waterless alcohol hand rub?, Clin Infect Dis, 31, 136, 10.1086/313888 Parienti, 2002, Hand-rubbing with an aqueous alcoholic solution vs traditional surgical hand-scrubbing and 30-day surgical site infection rates: a randomized equivalence study, JAMA, 288, 722, 10.1001/jama.288.6.722 Girou, 2002, Efficacy of handrubbing with alcohol based solution versus standard handwashing with antiseptic soap: randomised clinical trial, BMJ, 325, 362, 10.1136/bmj.325.7360.362 Tenorio, 2001, Effectiveness of gloves in the prevention of hand carriage of vancomycin-resistant enterococcus species by health care workers after patient care, Clin Infect Dis, 32, 826, 10.1086/319214 Byers, 1998, Disinfection of hospital rooms contaminated with vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus faecium, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 19, 261, 10.2307/30142418 Smith, 1998, Environmental contamination with vancomycin-resistant enterococci in an outpatient setting, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 19, 515, 10.2307/30141404 Saurina, 1997, Activity of disinfectants against vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus faecium, Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 18, 345, 10.2307/30141230