Robots are friends as well as foes: Ambivalent attitudes toward mindful and mindless AI robots in the United States and China

Alexander, 1999, Images and affect: A functional analysis of out-group stereotype, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 78, 10.1037/0022-3514.77.1.78 Armitage, 2004, The effects of attitudinal ambivalence on attitude-intention behavior relations, 121 Bartneck, 2004, Rapid prototyping for interactive robots, 136 Bartneck, 2005, Cultural differences in attitudes towards robots Bartneck, 2007, The influence of people's culture and prior experiences with Aibo on their attitude towards robots, AI & Society, 21, 217 Bergmann, 2012, A second chance to make a first impression? How appearance and nonverbal behavior affect perceived warmth and competence of virtual agents over time Bickmore, 2003, Subtle expressivity by relational agents, Proceedings of the CHI 2011 Workshop on Subtle Expressivity for Characters and Robots, 3, 1 Bigman, 2019, People are averse to machines making moral decisions, Cognition, 181, 21, 10.1016/j.cognition.2018.08.003 Bigman, 2019, Holding robots responsible: The elements of machine morality, Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 23, 365, 10.1016/j.tics.2019.02.008 Breazeal, 2003, Emotion and sociable humanoid robots, International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 59, 119, 10.1016/S1071-5819(03)00018-1 Clark, 2019, Why the world wants controls over Artificial Intelligence, Computer Law & Security Report, 35, 423, 10.1016/j.clsr.2019.04.006 Conner, 2002, Ambivalence and attitudes, European Review of Social Psychology, 12, 37, 10.1080/14792772143000012 Cuddy, 2007, The BIAS map: Behaviors from intergroup affect and stereotypes, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 631, 10.1037/0022-3514.92.4.631 Da Silva Frost, 2020, Calibrate your confidence in research findings: A tutorial on improving research methods and practices, Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology, e14, 10.1017/prp.2020.7 Demeure, 2011, How is believability of a virtual agent related to warmth, competence, personification, and embodiment?, Presence, 20, 431, 10.1162/PRES_a_00065 Fong, 2003, A survey of socially interactive robots, Robotics and Autonomous Systems, 42, 143, 10.1016/S0921-8890(02)00372-X Geraci, 2006, Spiritual robots: Religion and our scientific view of the natural world, Theology and Science, 4, 229, 10.1080/14746700600952993 Gray, 2007, Dimensions of mind perception, Science, 315, 619, 10.1126/science.1134475 Gray, 2012, Feeling robots and human zombies: Mind perception and the uncanny valley, Cognition, 125, 125, 10.1016/j.cognition.2012.06.007 Haring, 2014, Cultural differences in perception and attitude towards robots, International Journal of Affective Engineering, 13, 149, 10.5057/ijae.13.149 van Harreveld, 2009, The agony of ambivalence and ways to resolve it: Introducing the MAID model, Personality and Social Psychology Review, 13, 45, 10.1177/1088868308324518 Heerink, 2006, The influence of a robot's social abilities on acceptance by elderly users Hofstede, 1979, Value systems in forty countries: Interpretation, validation, and consequences for theory, 389 Isbister, 2000, Consistency of personality in interactive characters: Verbal cues, non-verbal cues, and user characteristics, International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 53, 251, 10.1006/ijhc.2000.0368 Jha, 2016, Adapting to artificial intelligence: Radiologists and pathologists as information specialists?, Journal of the American Medical Association, 316, 2353, 10.1001/jama.2016.17438 Kaplan, 1972, On the ambivalence–indifference problem in attitude theory and measurement: A suggested modification of the semantic differential technique, Psychological Bulletin, 77, 361, 10.1037/h0032590 Kaplan, 2004, Who is afraid of the humanoid? Investigating cultural differences in the acceptance of robots, International Journal of Humanoid Robotics, 1, 465, 10.1142/S0219843604000289 Kitano, 2007, Animism, rinri, modernization: The base of Japanese robotics Lee, 2010, Trust in computers: The Computers-Are-Social-Actors (CASA) paradigm and trustworthiness perception in human-computer communication, 1 Lee, 2014, Culturally variable preferences for robot design and use in South Korea, Turkey, and the United States, 17 Liu, 2018, Should machines express sympathy and empathy? Experiments with a health advice chatbot, Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 21, 625, 10.1089/cyber.2018.0110 Macdorman, 2016, Reducing consistency in human realism increases the uncanny valley effect; increasing category uncertainty does not, Cognition, 146, 190, 10.1016/j.cognition.2015.09.019 Macdorman, 2015, Individual differences predict sensitivity to the uncanny valley, Interaction Studies, 16, 141, 10.1075/is.16.2.01mac Macdorman, 2008, Does Japan really have robot mania? Comparing attitudes by implicit and explicit measures, AI & Society, 23, 485, 10.1007/s00146-008-0181-2 Maier, 2019, Good, bad, or both? Measuremet of physician's ambivalent attitudes toward AI Maio, 2014 Manyika, 2017 Mathur, 2016, Navigating a social world with robot partners: A quantitative cartography of the Uncanny Valley, Cognition, 146, 22, 10.1016/j.cognition.2015.09.008 Mori, 1970, The uncanny valley, Energy, 7, 33 Morris, 1994, Culture and cause: American and Chinese attributions for social and physical events, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 949, 10.1037/0022-3514.67.6.949 Mou, 2017, The media inequality: Comparing the initial human-human and human-ai social interactions, Computers in Human Behavior, 72, 432, 10.1016/j.chb.2017.02.067 Nass, 2000, Machines and mindlessness: Social responses to computers, Journal of Social Issues, 56, 81, 10.1111/0022-4537.00153 Niewiadomski, 2010, Warmth, competence, believability and virtual agents, Vol. 6356 Nitto, 2017 Nomura, 2004, Psychology in human-robot communication: An attempt through investigation of negative attitudes and anxiety toward robots. Robot and Human Interactive Communication Ray, 2008, What do people expect from robots?, 3816 Reeves, 1996 Reich-Stiebert, 2013, Attitudes towards service robots in domestic environments: The role of personality characteristics, individual interests, and demographic variables, Journal of Behavioral Robotics, 4, 123 Reich-Stiebert, 2016, Robots in the classroom: What teachers think about teaching and learning with education robots, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 9979, 671, 10.1007/978-3-319-47437-3_66 Reich-Stiebert, 2019, Involve the user! Changing attitudes toward robots by user participation in a robot prototyping process, Computers in Human Behavior, 91, 290, 10.1016/j.chb.2018.09.041 Riketta, 2005, Cognitive differentiation between self, ingroup, and outgroup: The roles of identification and perceived intergroup conflict, European Journal of Social Psychology, 35, 97, 10.1002/ejsp.234 Stein, 2019, Stay back, clever thing! Linking situational control and human uniqueness concerns to the aversion against autonomous technology, Computers in Human Behavior, 95, 73, 10.1016/j.chb.2019.01.021 Stein, 2015, Coping with information technology: Mixed emotions, vacillation, and nonconforming use patterns, MIS Quarterly, 39, 367, 10.25300/MISQ/2015/39.2.05 Stein, 2017, Venturing into the uncanny valley of mind—the influence of mind attribution on the acceptance of human-like characters in a virtual reality setting, Cognition, 160, 43, 10.1016/j.cognition.2016.12.010 Taddeo, 2018, How AI can be a force for good, Science, 361, 751, 10.1126/science.aat5991 Thompson, 1995, Let's not be indifferent about (attitudinal) ambivalence, Vol. 4, 361 Torres, 2019, The possibility and risks of artificial general intelligence, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 75, 105, 10.1080/00963402.2019.1604873 Tsai, 2017, Voluntary use of information technology: An analysis and synthesis of the literature, Journal of Information Technology, 32, 147, 10.1057/jit.2016.6 Turkle, 2007, Authenticity in the age of digital companions, Interaction Studies, 8, 501, 10.1075/is.8.3.11tur Van Offenbeek, 2013, Towards integrating acceptance and resistance research: Evidence from a telecare case study, European Journal of Information Systems, 22, 434, 10.1057/ejis.2012.29 Vanman, E. J., & Kappas, A. (in press). “Danger, will robinson!” the challenges of social robots for intergroup relations. Social and Personality Psychology Compass. Varnum, 2010, The origin of cultural differences in cognition: Evidence for the social orientation hypothesis, Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19, 9, 10.1177/0963721409359301 Waytz, 2010, Who sees human? The stability and importance of individual differences in anthropomorphism, Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 219, 10.1177/1745691610369336 Waytz, 2014, The mind in the machine: Anthropomorphism increases trust in an autonomous vehicle, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 52, 113, 10.1016/j.jesp.2014.01.005 Winkielman, 2006, Prototypes are attractive because they are easy on the mind, Psychological Science, 17, 799, 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01785.x Yogeeswaran, 2016, The interactive effects of robot anthropomorphism and robot ability on perceived threat and support for robotics research, Journal on Human Robot Interaction, 5, 29, 10.5898/JHRI.5.2.Yogeeswaran