A Review of Battery Fires in Electric Vehicles

Matulka R (2014) The history of the electric car. In: Department of Energy. https://www.energy.gov/articles/history-electric-car. Accessed 20 Oct 2018 Anderson CD, Anderson J (2010) Electric and hybrid cars, 2nd edn. McFarland & Company, Jefferson Grauers A, Sarasini S, Karlström M, Industriteknik C (2013) Why electromobility and what is it? In: Sandén B (ed) Systems perspectives on electromobility. Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg BP (2018) Statistical review of world energy 2018. 1–53 Bisschop R, Willstrand O, Amon F, Rosengren M (2019) Fire safety of lithium-ion batteries in road vehicles. Borås Bisschop R, Willstrand O, Rosengren M (2019) Handling lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles—preventing and recovering from hazardous events. In: 1st International symposium on lithium battery fire safety. Hefei, China National Transportation Safety Board (2018) Preliminary report: crash and post-crash fire of electric-powered passenger vehicle CGTN (2019) Tesla car catches fire in China, investigation underway. https://news.cgtn.com/news/3d3d514d7a416a4d34457a6333566d54/index.html. Accessed 20 Mar 2019 Bangkok Post (2018) Porsche catches fire while charging. https://www.bangkokpost.com/thailand/general/1429518/porsche-catches-fire-while-charging. Accessed 20 Mar 2019 Loveday S (2018) BMW i3 REx burns after catching fire while parked in Spain. In: INSIDEEVs. https://insideevs.com/news/337258/bmw-i3-rex-burns-after-catching-fire-while-parked-in-spain/. Accessed 20 Mar 2019 Zhou X (2018) Frequent fire accidents on electric vehicle. Operators 10:65–66 National Transportation Safety Board (2018) Preliminary report: highway HWY18FH013. National Transportation Safety Board Revill J (2018) Tesla crash may have triggered battery fire: Swiss firefighters National Transportation Safety Board (2018) Preliminary report—battery fire in electric-powered passenger car. In: National Transportation Safety Board. https://www.ntsb.gov/investigations/accidentreports/pages/hwy18fh014-preliminary.aspx. Accessed 20 Oct 2018 Deick M Van (2018) Facebook. https://www.facebook.com/Marco.vandeick/posts/344761026325031. Accessed 20 Mar 2019 Gutman M, Yuon S (2018) Firefighters work 16 hours to put out fires in Tesla model S. In: ABC news. https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/tesla-opens-investigation-car-burst-flames-times/story?id=59930420. Accessed 19 Dec 2018 Wang Q, Ping P, Zhao X, et al (2012) Thermal runaway caused fire and explosion of lithium ion battery. J Power Sources 208:210–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2012.02.038 Wang Q, Mao B, Stoliarov SI, Sun J (2019) A review of lithium ion battery failure mechanisms and fire prevention strategies. Prog Energy Combust Sci 73:95–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2019.03.002 Feng X, Ouyang M, Liu X, et al (2018) Thermal runaway mechanism of lithium ion battery for electric vehicles: a review. Energy Storage Mater 10:246–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2017.05.013 Ouyang D, Chen M, Huang Q, et al (2019) A Review on the thermal hazards of the lithium-ion battery and the corresponding countermeasures. Appl Sci Switz. https://doi.org/10.3390/app9122483 Evarts EC (2015) Lithium batteries: to the limits of lithium. Nature 526:S93–S95. https://doi.org/10.1038/526s93a Moon G (2016) Renault-Samsung’s electric vehicle catches fire due to ignition from bonnet. In: ETRC·KGTLAB. http://www.ipnomics.net/?p=14858. Accessed 19 Dec 2018 Pecht M (2015) Safety. In: CALCE Battery Research Group. https://web.calce.umd.edu/batteries/safety.html. Accessed 19 Dec 2018 Home of EV (2018) What should we do during the EV fire? In: SOHU. https://www.sohu.com/a/233521985_526255. Accessed 19 Dec 2018 Hertzke P, Müller N, Schenk S, Wu T (2018) The global electric-vehicle market is amped upand on the rise. McKinsey Center for Future Mobility Offer GJ (2015) Automated vehicles and electrification of transport. Energy Environ Sci 8:26–30. https://doi.org/10.1039/c4ee02229g Frost & Sullivan (2018) Global electric vehicle market outlook, 2018 Egbue O, Long S (2012) Barriers to widespread adoption of electric vehicles: an analysis of consumer attitudes and perceptions. Energy Policy 48:717–729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2012.06.009 International Energy Agency (2018) Global EV outlook 2018: towards cross-modal electrification. IEA Publications, Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264302365-en The Economist Intelligence Unit (2018) France ranked top for EV adoption in 2017. In: The Economist. http://www.eiu.com/industry/article/526381436/france-ranked-top-for-ev-adoption-in-2017/2018-02-02. Accessed 20 Mar 2019 Bjerkan KY, Nørbech TE, Nordtømme ME (2016) Incentives for promoting battery electric vehicle (BEV) adoption in Norway. Transp Res Part D 43:169–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2015.12.002 Service USC (2017) The Electric Vehicle Market—France. In: International Trade Administration. https://www.export.gov/article?id=E-Mobility-in-France. Accessed 19 Dec 2018 Germany Trade & Invest (2015) Electromobility in Germany: vision 2020 and beyond Lu J (2018) Comparing U.S. and Chinese electric vehicle policies. In: Environmental and Energy Study Institute. https://www.eesi.org/articles/view/comparing-u.s.-and-chinese-electric-vehicle-policies. Accessed 19 Dec 2018 Council on Clean Transportation I (2015) Supporting the electric vehicle market in U.S. cities Howell S, Lee H, Heal A (2014) Leapfrogging or stalling out? Electric vehicles in China. HKS Working Paper No RWP14-035. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2493131 Gibson R (2018) What can we learn from Japan about EV adoption? In: FleetCarma, August 22. https://www.fleetcarma.com/can-learn-japan-ev-adoption/. Accessed 19 Dec 2018 Industry Steering Committee (2009) Electric vehicle technology roadmap for Canada: a strategic vision for highway-capable battery-electric, plug-in and other hybrid-electric vehicles. Natural Resources Canada Liu X, Wu Z, Stoliarov SI, et al (2016) Heat release during thermally-induced failure of a lithium ion battery: impact of cathode composition. Fire Saf J 85:10–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2016.08.001 Liu X, Stoliarov SI, Denlinger M, et al (2015) Comprehensive calorimetry of the thermally-induced failure of a lithium ion battery. J Power Sources 280:516–525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2015.01.125 Joey D (2016) Musk frustrated that Koch brothers spending millions to kill electric cars Markus F (2016) 2017 Chevrolet Bolt EV drivetrain first look (w/Video). In: Motortrend Apr 6 2016. https://www.motortrend.com/cars/chevrolet/volt/2016/2017-chevrolet-bolt-ev-drivetrain-first-look-review/. Accessed 19 Dec 2018 Arman A (2017) EV power-up may lie with prismatic tech. In: New straits times. https://www.nst.com.my/cbt/2017/12/315288/ev-power-may-lie-prismatic-tech. Accessed 19 Dec 2018 (2019) Types of battery cells; cylindrical cell, button cell, pouch cell. In: Battery University. https://batteryuniversity.com/index.php/learn/article/types_of_battery_cells. Accessed 24 Apr 2019 Miles A (2018) The secret life of an EV battery. In: Sustainable Enterprises Media, Inc. https://cleantechnica.com/2018/08/26/the-secret-life-of-an-ev-battery/. Accessed 20 Mar 2019 Garcia-Valle R, Lopes JAP (2013) Electric vehicle integration into modern power networks. Springer, New York SAMSUNG SDI The composition of EV batteries: cells? Modules? Packs? Let’s understand properly! http://www.samsungsdi.com/column/all/detail/54344.html. Accessed 20 Mar 2019 Timofeeva E (2017) Comparing electric cars and their batteries. In: Inlfluit energy. http://www.influitenergy.com/comparing-electric-cars-and-their-batteries/. Accessed 20 Mar 2019 Dinger A, Martin R, Mosquet X, Rabl M, Rizoulis D, Russo MS (2010) Batteries for electric cars: challenges, opportunities, and the outlook to 2020. The Boston Consulting Group Hao M, Li J, Park S, et al (2018) Efficient thermal management of Li-ion batteries with a passive interfacial thermal regulator based on a shape memory alloy. Nat Energy 3:899–906. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-018-0243-8 Kolly JM, Panagiotou J, Czech BA (2014) Failure analysis techniques for a lithium-ion battery fire investigation. Fire in vehicles Tesla (2019) Tesla Model S. https://www.tesla.com/models. Accessed 20 Mar 2019 Drysdale D (2011) An introduction to fire dynamics, 3rd ed. Wiley, Chichester Andrea D (2018) A list of li-ion cells available today. In: Li-ion BMS. http://liionbms.com/php/cells.php. Accessed 20 Mar 2019 Le Houx J (2017) Developments in composite energy storage. energy technology, environment and sustainability reviews 24832413 Berjoza D, Jurgena I (2017) Effects of change in the weight of electric vehicles on their performance characteristics. Agron Res 15:952–963 Idaho National Laboratory (2016) 2014 BMW i3 review-advanced vehicle testing—baseline vehicle testing result. INL/MIS-15-34211 Compare side-by-side. In: US Department of Energy. https://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/Find.do?action=sbs&id=38524&id=38569&id=38525&id=38640. Accessed 20 Mar 2019 Balakrishnan PG, Ramesh R, Prem Kumar T (2006) Safety mechanisms in lithium-ion batteries. J Power Sources 155:401–414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2005.12.002 Tobishima SI, Yamaki JI (1999) A consideration of lithium cell safety. J Power Sources 81–82:882–886. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-7753(98)00240-7 Lecocq A, Eshetu GG, Grugeon S, et al (2016) Scenario-based prediction of Li-ion batteries fire-induced toxicity. J Power Sources 316:197–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.02.090 Gough N (2014) Sony warns some new laptop batteries may catch fire. In: The New York times. https://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/12/technology/sony-warns-some-new-laptop-batteries-may-catch-fire.html. Accessed 20 Mar 2019 Liu Y, Sun P, Niu H, et al (2020) Propensity to self-heating ignition of open-circuit pouch Lithium-ion battery pile on a hot boundary. Fire Saf J (under review) He X, Restuccia F, Zhang Y, et al (2019) Experimental study of self-heating ignition of lithium-ion batteries during storage and transport: effect of the number of cells. Fire Technol (under review) Blum A, Long RT (2015) Full-scale fire tests of electric drive vehicle batteries. SAE Int J Passeng Cars Mech Syst 8:565–572. https://doi.org/10.4271/2015-01-1383 Justen R, Schöneburg R (2011) Crash safety of hybrid and battery electric vehicles. In: 22nd Enhanced safety of vehicles conference, Washington Wisch M, J. Ott RT, Léost Y, et al (2014) Recommendations and guidelines for battery crash safety and post-crash handling. EVERSAFE Uwai H, Isoda A, Ichikawa H, Takahashi N (2011) Development of body structure for crash safety of the newly developed electric vehicle. In: 22nd Enhanced safety of vehicles conference, Washington Fairley P (2010) Speed bumps ahead for electric-vehicle charging. IEEE Spectrum 47:13–14. https://doi.org/10.1109/mspec.2010.5372476 Zheng J, Engelhard MH, Mei D, et al (2017) Electrolyte additive enabled fast charging and stable cycling lithium metal batteries. Nat Energy https://doi.org/10.1038/nenergy.2017.12 Larsson F, Mellander B-E (2017) Lithium-ion batteries used in electrified vehicles—general risk assessment and construction guidelines from a fire and gas release perspective. RISE Research Institutes of Sweden, Borås Larsson F (2017) Lithium-ion battery safety-assessment by abuse testing, fluoride gas emissions and fire propagation. Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg Colella F (2016) Understanding electric vehicle fires. In: Fire protection and safety in tunnels. Stavanger Glassman I, Yetter RA (2008) Combustion, 4th ed. Academic Press, New York Babrauskas V (2003) Ignition handbook. Fire science publishers/society of fire protection engineers, Issaquah Doughty DH, Pesaran AA (2012) Vehicle battery safety roadmap guidance. Renewable Energy Laboratory, Denver Said AO, Lee C, Stoliarov SI, Marshall AW (2019) Comprehensive analysis of dynamics and hazards associated with cascading failure in 18650 lithium ion cell arrays. Appl Energy 248:415–428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.04.141 Kumar K (2015) Flammability of plastics in today’s automobiles. SAE Tech Papers. https://doi.org/10.4271/2015-01-1380 Tewarson A (1997) A study of the flammability of plastics in vehicle components and parts. Technical Report FMRC JI 0B1R7RC, Factory Mutual Research Corporation, Norwood, MA Iguchi M (2015) Divergence and convergence of automobile fuel economy regulations: a comparative analysis of EU, Japan and the US. Springer, Berlin Ribière P, Grugeon S, Morcrette M, et al (2012) Investigation on the fire-induced hazards of Li-ion battery cells by fire calorimetry. Energy Environ Sci 5:5271–5280. https://doi.org/10.1039/c1ee02218k U. S. Department of Energy (2018) FOTW #1010, January 1, 2018: All-electric light vehicle ranges can exceed those of some gasoline light vehicles January 1, 2018. https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/articles/fotw-1010-january-1-2018-all-electric-light-vehicle-ranges-can-exceed-those. Accessed 20 Mar 2019 Fu Y, Lu S, Li K, et al (2015) An experimental study on burning behaviors of 18650 lithium ion batteries using a cone calorimeter. J Power Sources 273:216–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.09.039 Chen M, Dongxu O, Liu J, Wang J (2019) Investigation on thermal and fire propagation behaviors of multiple lithium-ion batteries within the package. Appl Therm Eng 157:113750. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2019.113750 Chen M, He Y, De Zhou C, et al (2016) experimental study on the combustion characteristics of primary lithium batteries fire. Fire Technol 52:365–385. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-014-0450-1 Chen M, Zhou D, Chen X, et al (2015) Investigation on the thermal hazards of 18650 lithium ion batteries by fire calorimeter. J Therm Anal Calorim 122:755–763. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-015-4751-5 Larsson F, Andersson P, Blomqvist P, et al (2014) Characteristics of lithium-ion batteries during fire tests. J Power Sources 271:414–420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.08.027 Ping P, Wang QS, Huang PF, et al (2015) Study of the fire behavior of high-energy lithium-ion batteries with full-scale burning test. J Power Sources 285:80–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2015.03.035 Sturk D, Hoffmann L, Ahlberg Tidblad A (2015) Fire tests on e-vehicle battery cells and packs. Traffic Injury Prev 16:159–164. https://doi.org/10.1080/15389588.2015.1015117 Wang Z, Yang H, Li Y, et al (2019) Thermal runaway and fire behaviors of large-scale lithium ion batteries with different heating methods. J Hazard Mater 379:120730. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.06.007 Macneil DD, Lougheed G, Lam C, et al (2015) Electric vehicle fire testing. In: 8th EVS-GTR meeting, Washington, USA 1–5 June 2015 Iclodean C, Varga B, Burnete N, et al (2017) Comparison of different battery types for electric vehicles. In: IOP conference series: materials science and engineering (2019) 2019 Kia Niro EV Specifications. In: Kia Media. https://www.kiamedia.com/us/en/models/niro-ev/2019/specifications. Accessed 20 Mar 2019 Watanabe N, Sugawa O, Suwa T, et al (2012) Comparison of fire behaviours of an electric-battery-powered behicle and gasoline-powered vehicle in a real-scale fire test. In: 2nd International conference on fires in vehicles, Chicago Lecocq A, Bertana M, Truchot B, Marlair G (2012) Comparison of the fire consequences of an electric vehicle and an internal combustion engine vehicle. In: International conference on fires in vehicles—FIVE 2012. Chicago, United States, pp 183–194 WPI VH (2017) Li-ion battery energy stroage systems: Effect of separation deistances based on a radiation heat transfer analysis Larsson F, Andersson P, Mellander B-E (2016) Lithium-ion battery aspects on fires in electrified vehicles on the basis of experimental abuse tests. Batteries 2:9. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries2020009 Lam C, MacNeil D, Kroeker R, et al (2016) Full-scale fire testing of electric and internal combustion engine vehicles. In: 4th International conference on fire in vehicle, Baltimore Stephens D, Stout P, Sullivan G, et al (2019) Lithium-ion battery safety issues for electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (Report No DOT HS 812 418), Washington, DC Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) (2017) Accident assistance and recovery of vehicles with high-voltage systems. Verband der Automobilindustrie eV 1–30 Thermal A, Chamber T (2019) Analysis of li-ion battery gases vented in an inert atmosphere thermal test chamber. 5:1–17 Guo F, Ozaki Y, Nishimura K, et al (2019) Experimental study on flame stability limits of lithium ion battery electrolyte solvents with organophosphorus compounds addition using a candle-like wick combustion system. Combust Flame 207:63–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2019.05.019 (2019) Tesla vehicle safety report. Tesla (2019) The Home Office, Road vehicle fires dataset, August 2019, UK. https://www.gov.uk/government/statistical-data-sets/fire-statistics-incident-level-datasets. Accessed 20 Mar 2019 Huang X, Nakamura Y (2020) A review of fundamental combustion phenomena in wire fires. Fire Technol 1–32. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-019-00918-5 EV century (2018) Lifan 650EV spontaneously ignited. In: GaoGong EV Web. http://www.gg-ev.com/asdisp2-65b095fb-26641-.html. Accessed 20 Mar 2019 Leung C (2015) First Hong Kong-designed electric bus rolls out for a month of test-drives on city’s roads. In: South China Morning Post. https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/economy/article/1872155/first-hong-kong-designed-electric-bus-hits-citys-roads-month. Accessed 20 Mar 2019 Herron D (2016) Model S catches fire in Norway at supercharger, charging system seemingly at fault. In: The Long tail pipe. https://longtailpipe.com/2016/01/01/model-s-catches-fire-in-norway-at-supercharger-charging-system-seemingly-at-fault/. Accessed 20 Mar 2019 Blanco S (2013) Tesla model S catches fire near Seattle, no injuries reported. In: Autoblog. https://www.autoblog.com/2013/10/02/tesla-model-s-fire/. Accessed 20 Mar 2019 Lambert F (2017) Tesla Model S fire vs 35 firefighters—watch impressive operation after a high-speed crash. In: Electrek, 18 October 2017. https://electrek.co/2017/10/18/tesla-model-s-fire-high-speed-crash-video-impressive-operation/. Accessed 20 Mar 2019 Winkler S (2018) Final report—crash involving Tesla Model S—10400 South Bangerter Highway. South Jordan Police Department Marshall R Report confirms sensor failure caused electric bus fire. In: The Frederick News Post, Nov 3, 2016. https://www.fredericknewspost.com/news/politics_and_government/levels_of_government/county/report-confirms-sensor-failure-caused-electric-bus-fire/article_7689d9d5-7ded-5586-b6d9-b2b2519ca568.html. Accessed 20 Mar 2019 Mengjie (2017) Tourist buses catch fire in Beijing, no casualties. In: XINHUANET. http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2017-05/01/c_136248785.htm. Accessed 20 Mar 2019 Shiming Y (2017) Hundreds of electric buses ruined in fire. In: 21cnevcom. http://www.21cnev.com/html/201705/775455_1.html. Accessed 20 Mar 2019 Herron D (2015) Electric cars are safer than gasoline cars. In: Green transportation. https://greentransportation.info/ev-ownership/safer/index.html. Accessed 20 Mar 2019 Lu L, Han X, Li J, et al (2013) A review on the key issues for lithium-ion battery management in electric vehicles. J Power Sources 226:272–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2012.10.060 Williams FA (1977) Mechanisms of fire spread. Symp (Int) Combust 16:1281–1294. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0082-0784(77)80415-3 Batenburg C Van (2014) Introduction to HEV, PHEV and EVs: For technicians and students new to high-voltage systems, 1st edn. Automotive Career Development Center Warner JT (2015) The handbook of lithium-ion battery pack design: chemistry, components, types and terminology. Elsevier, Amsterdam Beauregard GP, Phoenix AZ (2008) Report of investigation: Hybrids plus plug in hybrid electric vehicle. National Rural Electric Cooperative Association, Inc and US Department of Energy, Idaho National Laboratory by ETEC, Arlington He X (2016) A mixed energy public bus caught on fire in Shenzhen. In: Inewenergy. http://www.inewenergy.com/news/guonei/031GO162016.html. Accessed 20 Mar 2019 China battery enterprise alliance (2016) Wuzhoulong hybrid bus fire. http://www.cbea.com/hydt/201603/16778.html. Accessed 20 Mar 2019 Chatman S (2018) Denton woman says Kia Won’t Reimburse Her After Car Catches Fire. In: NBC 5 Dallas-Fort Worth. https://www.nbcdfw.com/news/local/Denton-Woman-Says-Kia-Wont-Reimburse-Her-After-Car-Catches-Fire-491908751.html. Accessed 20 Mar 2019 (2018) Bt10m Porsche up in flames as battery charging goes wrong. In: THE NATION, 16 Mar 2018. https://www.nationthailand.com/news/30341102. Accessed 20 Mar 2019 Garche J, Brandt K (2019) Li-battery safety. Elsevier, Amsterdam Tidblad AA (2018) Regulatory outlook on electric vehicle safety. In: 5th International conference on fires in vehicles. Borås Cabrera Castillo E (2015) Advances in battery technologies for electric vehicles. Elsevier, Amsterdam Doughty DH, Crafts CC (2006) FreedomCAR electrical energy storage system abuse test manual for electric and hybrid electric vehicle applications. SAND2005-3123 Ruiz V, Pfrang A, Kriston A, et al (2018) A review of international abuse testing standards and regulations for lithium ion batteries in electric and hybrid electric vehicles. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 81:1427–1452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.195 Andreas Sater Boe (2017) Full scale electric vehicle fire test. In: Fire product search. https://www.fireproductsearch.com/full-scale-electric-vehicle-fire-test/. Accessed 20 Mar 2019 SAE (2009) Electric and hybrid electric vehicle rechargeable energy storage system (RESS) safety and abuse testing. SAE J2464_200911 2 SAE Ground Vehicle Technical Committees (2011) Electric and hybrid vehicle propulsion battery system safety standard UL (2013) Batteries for use in electric vehicles. UL 2580 IEC (2010) Secondary lithium-ion cells for the propulsion of electric road vehicles—part 2: reliability and abuse testing SAE (2011) Electric and hybrid electric vehicle rechargeable energy storages. SAE J2464 2 UNCECE (2015) Uniform provisions concerning the approval of vehicles with regard to specific requirements for the electric power train [2015/05]. Regulation No 100 of the Economic Commission for Europe of the United Nations (UNECE) SAE (2013) Safety standard for electric and hybrid vehicle propulsion battery system utilizing lithium-based rechargeabel cell J2929-201302 Spotnitz R, Franklin J (2003) Abuse behavior of high-power, lithium-ion cells. J Power Sources 113:81–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-7753(02)00488-3 Zhang X (2011) Thermal analysis of a cylindrical lithium-ion battery. Electrochim Acta 56:1246–1255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2010.10.054 Eshetu GG, Jeong S, Pandard P, et al (2017) Comprehensive insights into the thermal stability, biodegradability, and combustion chemistry of pyrrolidinium-based ionic liquids. ChemSusChem 10:3146–3159. https://doi.org/10.1002/cssc.201701006 Spinner NS, Field CR, Hammond MH, et al (2015) Physical and chemical analysis of lithium-ion battery cell-to-cell failure events inside custom fire chamber. J Power Sources 279:713–721. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2015.01.068 Chen S-C, Wang Y-Y, Wan C-C (2006) Thermal analysis of spirally wound lithium batteries. J Electrochem Soc 153:A637–A637. https://doi.org/10.1149/1.2168051 Santhanagopalan S, Ramadass P, Zhang J (Zhengming) (2009) Analysis of internal short-circuit in a lithium ion cell. J Power Sources 194:550–557. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2009.05.002 Finegan D, Scheel M, Robinson JB, et al (2015) In-operando high-speed tomography of lithium-ion batteries during thermal runaway. Nat Commun 6:6924. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms7924 Cai L, White RE (2011) Mathematical modeling of a lithium ion battery with thermal effects in COMSOL Inc. Multiphysics (MP) software. J Power Sources 196:5985–5989. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2011.03.017 Chen SC, Wan CC, Wang YY (2005) Thermal analysis of lithium-ion batteries. J Power Sources 140:111–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2004.05.064 Kim G-H, Pesaran A, Spotnitz R (2007) A three-dimensional thermal abuse model for lithium-ion cells. J Power Sources 170:476–489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2007.04.018 Mahamud R, Park C (2011) Reciprocating air flow for Li-ion battery thermal management to improve temperature uniformity. J Power Sources 196:5685–5696. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2011.02.076 US Department of Transportation (2014) Interim guidance for electric and hybrid-electric vehicles equipped with high-voltage batteries. DOT HS 811 575 Wang Q (2018) Study on fire and fire spread characteristics of lithium ion batteries. In: 2018 China national symposium on combustion Andersson P, Brandt J, Willstrand O (2016) Full scale fire-test of an electric hybrid bus. SP Report Łebkowski A (2017) Electric vehicle fire extinguishing system. Przegląd Elektrotechniczny 93:329–332. https://doi.org/10.15199/48.2017.01.77 Gardiner J (2017) The rise of electric cars could leave us with a big battery waste problem. In: The Guardian, 10 Aug 2017. https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2017/aug/10/electric-cars-big-battery-waste-problem-lithium-recycling. Accessed 20 Mar 2019 Polinares (2012) Fact Sheet: Lithium. GLOBAL 2000 VerlagsgesmbH Kong L, Li C, Jiang J, Pecht MG (2018) Li-ion battery fire hazards and safety strategies. Energies 11:1–11. https://doi.org/10.3390/en11092191 NFPA (2018) Standard for porable fire extinguishers. NFPA 10 Schiemann M, Bergthorson J, Fischer P, et al (2016) A review on lithium combustion. Appl Energy 162:948–965. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.10.172 Andersson P, Wikman J, Arvidson M, et al (2017) Safe introduction of battery propulsion at sea. RISE Research Institutes of Sweden Willstrand O (2019) To manage fire risks related to Li-ion batteries in vehicles Universitet/högskola/företag. RISE Research Institutes of Sweden 8P03983-03: United Nations Economic and Social Council (UNECE) (1958) Agreement concerning the adoption of harmonized technical United Nations regulations for wheeled vehicles, equipment and parts which can be fitted and/or be used on wheeled vehicles and the conditions for reciprocal recognition of approvals granted on the. In: Unitied Nations Treaty. United Nations, Geneva The Swedish Fire Protection Association (2016) SBF 127:16 Regler för brandskydd på arbetsfordon och -maskiner The Swedish Fire Protection Association (2017) Regler för fast automatiskt släcksystem på bussar. SBF 128:3 RISE Research Institutes of Sweden (2018) SP Method 4912Method for testing the suppression performance of fire suppression systems intended forengine compartments of buses, coachesand other heavy vehicles Andersson P, Sundström B (2014) Proceedings from 3rd international conference on fires in vehicles. In: FIVE—fires in vehicles. p 274 NFPA (2015) Emergency field guide. NFPA (2019) Fire Suppression Systems. In: SafeQuip. http://www.safequip.co.za/product/ceodeux-suppression-system/. Accessed 20 Mar 2019 (2018) “Ferocious” fire ripped through Liverpool Echo Arena car park. In: BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-merseyside-42533830. Accessed 20 Mar 2019 Joyeux D, Kruppa J, Cajot L-G, et al (2001) Demonstration of real fire tests in car parks and high rise buildings Richard Read (2011) Largest electric-car charging site: Would You Believe Houston? In: Green Car Reports. https://www.greencarreports.com/news/1066818_largest-electric-car-charging-site-would-you-believe-houston. Accessed 19 Dec 2018 NFPA (2020) National electrical code. NFPA 70 Curtland C (2013) Parking lot EV chargers. In: Buildings. https://www.buildings.com/article-details/articleid/15485/title/parking-lot-ev-chargers/viewall/true. Accessed 19 Dec 2018 NFPA (2014) Hybrid and electric vehicle emergency field guide. 1–38